In early Middle Ages the Mediterranean-Hellenistic Jewry of antiquity separated and developed into Byzantine-southern Italian, Roman, Catalan-southern French and Arabic-Sicilian branches. By the end of the tenth century the immense wealth of the Cairo Genizah begins to shed light on Jews in the Muslim world including Arab Sicily and, to a much lesser degree, in Muslim Spain and Byzantium. The early settlement history of Jews in Europe should distinguish between two spheres, south and north, and two periods, from late antiquity to c.800, and afterwards until c.1050/1100. The ownership of agricultural land by Jews is definitely demonstrated by Latin charters of the ninth to eleventh centuries in Italy, Christian Spain, and southern and east-central France. Toldot Yeshu and other indications in liturgy and religious poetry point to a polemical imperative in early medieval Jewish culture that is almost the matching image of the Christian approach to Judaism.