Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T05:45:27.722Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reciprocity: Weak or strong? What punishment experiments do (and do not) demonstrate

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2012

Francesco Guala
Francesco Guala
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy. [email protected]://users.unimi.it/guala/index.htm
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Economists and biologists have proposed a distinction between two mechanisms – “strong” and “weak” reciprocity – that may explain the evolution of human sociality. Weak reciprocity theorists emphasize the benefits of long-term cooperation and the use of low-cost strategies to deter free-riders. Strong reciprocity theorists, in contrast, claim that cooperation in social dilemma games can be sustained by costly punishment mechanisms, even in one-shot and finitely repeated games. To support this claim, they have generated a large body of evidence concerning the willingness of experimental subjects to punish uncooperative free-riders at a cost to themselves. In this article, I distinguish between a “narrow” and a “wide” reading of the experimental evidence. Under the narrow reading, punishment experiments are just useful devices to measure psychological propensities in controlled laboratory conditions. Under the wide reading, they replicate a mechanism that supports cooperation also in “real-world” situations outside the laboratory. I argue that the wide interpretation must be tested using a combination of laboratory data and evidence about cooperation “in the wild.” In spite of some often-repeated claims, there is no evidence that cooperation in the small egalitarian societies studied by anthropologists is enforced by means of costly punishment. Moreover, studies by economic and social historians show that social dilemmas in the wild are typically solved by institutions that coordinate punishment, reduce its cost, and extend the horizon of cooperation. The lack of field evidence for costly punishment suggests important constraints about what forms of cooperation can or cannot be sustained by means of decentralised policing.

Keywords

Cooperationevolutionexperimentspunishmentreciprocity
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , February 2012 , pp. 1 - 15
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Andreoni, J., Erard, B. & Feinstein, J. (1998) Tax compliance. Journal of Economic Literature 36:818–60. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2565123.Google Scholar
Axelrod, R. (1984) The evolution of cooperation. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. (1981) The evolution of cooperation. Science 211:1390–96. Available at : http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;211/4489/1390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardsley, N., Cubitt, R., Loomes, G., Moffatt, P., Starmer, C. & Sugden, R. (2009) Experimental economics: Rethinking the rules. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Baumard, N. (2010b) Has punishment played a role in the evolution of cooperation? A critical review. Mind and Society 9:171–92. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/16734k611l07p502/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendor, J. & Swistak, P. (1995) Types of evolutionary stability and the problem of cooperation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 92:3596–600. Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/92/8/3596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bendor, J. & Swistak, P. (1997) The evolutionary stability of cooperation. American Political Science Review 91:290–307. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2952357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berg, J., Dickhaut, J. & McCabe, K. (1995) Trust, reciprocity, and social history. Games and Economic Behavior 10:122–42. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0899825685710275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergstrom, T. C. (2002) Evolution of social behavior: Individual and group selection. Journal of Economic Perspectives 16:67–88. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2696497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binmore, K. (1998) Game theory and the social contract II: Just playing. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Binmore, K. (1999) Why experiment in economics? The Economic Journal 109(453):16–24. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0297.00399/abstract.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binmore, K. (2005) Natural justice. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binmore, K. (2006) Why do people cooperate? Politics, Philosophy and Economics 5:81–96. Available at: http://ppe.sagepub.com/content/5/1/81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehm, C. (1999) Hierarchy in the forest: The evolution of egalitarian behavior. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borges, B. F. J. & Knetsch, J. L. (1997) Valuation of gains and losses, fairness, and negotiation outcomes. International Journal of Social Economics 24:265–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (2002) Behavioural science: Homo reciprocans. Nature 415:125–28. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6868/full/415125a.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (2004) The evolution of strong reciprocity: Cooperation in heterogeneous populations. Theoretical Population Biology 65(1):17–28. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040580903001163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, R., Gintis, H. & Bowles, S. (2010) Coordinated punishment of defectors sustains cooperation and can proliferate when rare. Science 328(5978):617–20. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/328/5978/617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, R., Gintis, H., Bowles, S. & Richerson, P. (2003) The evolution of altruistic punishment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100(6):3531–35. Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/100/6/3531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. (1990) Group selection among alternative evolutionarily stable strategies. Journal of Theoretical Biology 145:331–42. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519305801134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. (1992) Punishment allows the evolution of cooperation (or anything else) in sizable groups. Ethology and Sociobiology 13(3):171–95. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/016230959290032Y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs, J. L. (1970) Never in anger: Portrait of an Eskimo family. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Burlando, R. M. & Guala, F. (2005) Heterogeneous agents in public goods experiments. Experimental Economics 8:35–54. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/u38gh84100pk3235/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnham, T. C. & Johnson, D. D. P. (2005) The biological and evolutionary logic of human cooperation. Analyse and Kritik 27:113–35. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.169.3915&rep=rep1&type=pdf CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camerer, C. (2003) Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Camerer, C. F. & Fehr, E. (2004) Measuring social norms and preferences using experimental games: A guide for social scientists. In: Foundations of human sociality, ed. Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & Gintis, H., pp. 55–95. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardenas, J. C., Stranlund, J. & Willis, C. (2000) Local environmental control and institutional crowding-out. World Development 28:1719–33. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00055-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, J. P., Daniere, A. G. & Takahashi, L. M. (2004) Cooperation, trust, and social capital in Southeast Asian urban slums. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 55:533–51. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2003.11.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casari, M. (2007) Emergence of endogenous legal institutions: Property rights and community governance in the Italian Alps. Journal of Economic History 67(1):191–226. Available at: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022050707000071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casari, M. & Luini, L. (2009) Cooperation under alternative punishment institutions: An experiment. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 71(2):273–82. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2009.03.022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casari, M. & Plott, C. R. (2003) Decentralized management of common property resources: Experiments with a centuries-old institution. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 51(2):217–47. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2681(02)00098-7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1968/1992) Yanomamö: The fierce people, 6th edition. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (Original work published in 1968).Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1988) Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 239(843):985–92. Available at : http://www.sciencemag. org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;239/4843/985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cinyabuguma, M., Page, T. & Putterman, L. (2005) Cooperation under the threat of expulsion in a public goods experiment. Journal of Public Economics 89:1421–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, D. J. & Dutcher, E. G. (2009) The dynamics of responder behavior in ultimatum games: A meta-study. Working Paper, Florida State University. Available at: https://mywebdav.fsu.edu/djcooper/research/dynresponder.pdf.Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Denant-Boemont, L., Masclet, D. & Noussair, C. (2007) Punishment, counterpunishment and sanction enforcement in a social dilemma experiment. Economic Theory 33(1):145–67. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/index/J7356X79300876J7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Quervain, D. J.-F., Fischbacher, U., Treyer, V., Schellhammer, M., Schnyder, U., Buck, A. & Fehr, E. (2004) The neural basis of altruistic punishment. Science 305:1254–58. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5688/1254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dreber, A., Rand, D. G., Fudenberg, D. & Nowak, M. A. (2008) Winners don't punish. Nature 452(7185):348–51. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7185/abs/nature06723.html.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubreuil, B. (2010) Punitive emotions and norm violations. Philosophical Explorations 13:35–50. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13869790903486776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1996/1998) Grooming, gossip and the evolution of language. Harvard University Press. (Original publication date, 1996).Google Scholar
Egas, M. & Riedl, A. (2008) The economics of altruistic punishment and the maintenance of cooperation. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275(1637):871–78. Available at: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing. org/content/275/1637/871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falk, A., Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (2005) Driving forces behind informal sanctions. Econometrica 73:2017–30. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2005.00644.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, A. & Fischbacher, U. (2005) Modeling strong reciprocity. In: Moral sentiments and material interests, ed. Gintis, H., Boyd, R., Bowles, S. & Fehr, E., pp. 193–214. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (2002) Why social preferences matter – The impact of non-selfish motives on competition, cooperation and incentives. Economic Journal 112:C1–C33. Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118940088.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (2004) Third-party punishment and social norms. Evolution and Human Behavior 25(2):63–87. Available at: http://linkinghub. elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513804000054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (2005) The economics of strong reciprocity. In: Moral sentiments and material interests, ed. Gintis, , Boyd, R., Bowles, S. & Fehr, E., pp. 151–91 MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Gächter, S. (2000a) Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments. American Economic Review 90(4):980–94. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/117319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Gächter, S. (2002) Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature 415(6868):137–40. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6868/abs/415137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fehr, E., Kirchsteiger, G. & Riedl, A. (1993) Does fairness prevent market clearing? An experimental investigation. Quarterly Journal of Economics 108:437–59. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118338 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. & Schmidt, K. M. (2006) The economics of fairness, reciprocity and altruism – Experimental evidence and new theories. In: Handbook of the economics of giving, reciprocity and altruism, vol. 1, ed. Kolm, S. & Ythier, J. M., pp. 615–91. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Fischbacher, U., Gächter, S. & Fehr, E. (2001) Are people conditionally cooperative? Evidence from a public goods experiment. Economics Letters 71:397–404. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(01)00394-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fong, C. (2001) Social preferences, self-interest, and the demand for redistribution. Journal of Public Economics 82:225–46. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047272700001419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1988) Passions within reason: The strategic role of emotions. Norton.Google Scholar
Frey, B. & Meier, S. (2004) Social comparison and pro-social behavior: Testing “conditional cooperation” in a field experiment. American Economic Review 94:1717–22. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3592843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fudenberg, D., Levine, D. K. & Maskin, E. (1994) The folk theorem with imperfect public information. Econometrica 62:997–1039. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2951505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fudenberg, D. & Maskin, E. (1986) The folk theorem in repeated games with discounting or with incomplete information. Econometrica 54:533–54. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1911307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gächter, S. & Herrmann, B. (2009) Reciprocity, culture and human cooperation: Previous insights and a new cross-cultural experiment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364(1518):791–806. Available at: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1518/791.abstract.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gächter, S., Renner, E. & Sefton, M. (2008) The long-run benefits of punishment. Science 322(5907):1510. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/322/5907/1510 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gintis, H. (2000) Strong reciprocity and human sociality. Journal of Theoretical Biology 206(2):169–79. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519300921118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gintis, H. (2006) Behavioral ethics meets natural justice. Politics, Philosophy and Economics 5:5–32. Available at: http://ppe.sagepub.com/content/5/1/5.full.pdf+html CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gintis, H. (2009) The bounds of reason: Game theory and the unification of the behavioral sciences. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gintis, H., Boyd, R., Bowles, S. & Fehr, E. (2003) Explaining altruistic behavior in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior 24:153–72. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00157-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gintis, H., Boyd, R., Bowles, S. & Fehr, E., eds. (2005) Moral sentiments and material interests: The foundations of cooperation in economic life. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gouldner, A. W. (1960) The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review 25:161–78. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2092623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guala, F. (2005) The methodology of experimental economics. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guala, F. (2008) Paradigmatic experiments: The ultimatum game from testing to measurement device. Philosophy of Science 75:658–69. Available at: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/594512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gürerk, O., Irlenbusch, B. & Rockenbach, B. (2006) The competitive advantage of sanctioning institutions. Science 312:108–11. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5770/108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurven, M. (2004) To give and to give not: The behavioral ecology of human food transfers. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27:543–59. Available at: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0140525X04000123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Güth, W., Schmittberger, R. & Schwarze, B. (1982) An experimental analysis of ultimatum Bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 3(4):367–88. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0167268182900117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hacking, I. (1988) The participant irrealist at large in the laboratory. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 39:277–94. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/687207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagen, E. H. & Hammerstein, P. (2006) Game theory and human evolution: A critique of some recent interpretations of experimental games. Theoretical Population Biology 69:339–48. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040580905001668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, G. W. & List, J. A. (2004) Field experiments. Journal of Economic Literature 42:1009–1055. Available at: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/aea/jel/2004/00000042/00000004/art00001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkes, K. (1993) Why hunter-gatherers work: An ancient version of the problem of public goods. Current Anthropology 34:341–62. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & Boyd, R. (2001) Why people punish defectors: Weak conformist transmission can stabilize costly enforcement of norms in cooperative dilemmas. Journal of Theoretical Biology 208(1):79–89. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519300922021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E. & Gintis, H., eds. (2004) Foundations of human sociality: Economic experiments and ethnographic evidence from fifteen small-scale societies. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & Henrich, N. (2007) Why humans cooperate: A cultural and evolutionary explanation. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrmann, B., Thöni, C. & Gächter, S. (2008) Antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319(5868):1362–67. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;319/5868/1362 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirshleifer, J. (1987) On the emotions as guarantors of threats and promises. In: The latest on the best, ed. Dupré, J., pp. 307–26. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Janssen, M. A., Holahan, R., Lee, A. & Ostrom, E. (2010) Lab experiments for the study of social–ecological systems. Science 328(5978):613–17. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/328/5978/613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L. & Thaler, R. H. (1991) Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5:193–206. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1942711.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knauft, B. M. (1991) Violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:391–428. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743815.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, R. B. (1979) The !Kung San: Men, women, and work in a foraging society. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mahdi, N. Q. (1986) Pukhtunwali: Ostracism and honor among the Pathan Hill tribes. Ethology and Sociobiology 7:295–304. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0162309586900555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlowe, F. W. (2010) The Hadza: Hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. W., Berbesque, J. C., Barr, A., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Cardenas, J. C., Ensminger, J., Gurven, M., Gwako, E., Henrich, J., Henrich, N., Lesorogol, C., McElreath, L. & Tracer, D. (2008) More “altruistic” punishment in larger societies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 275(1634):587–92. Available at: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/content/abstract/275/1634/587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, L. (1961) Sharing, talking, giving: Relief of social tensions among the !Kung Bushmen. Africa 31:231–49. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1157263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masclet, D., Noussair, C., Tucker, S. & Villeval, M.-C. (2003) Monetary and nonmonetary punishment in the voluntary contributions mechanism. American Economic Review 93(1):366–80. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3132181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mauss, M. (1954) The gift: Forms and functions of exchange in archaic societies. Cohen & West.Google Scholar
McCloskey, D. N. (1972) The enclosure of open fields: Preface to a study of its impact on the efficiency of English agriculture in the eighteenth century. Journal of Economic History 32:15–35. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2117175 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikiforakis, N. (2008) Punishment and counter-punishment in public good games: Can we really govern ourselves? Journal of Public Economics 92:91–112. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047272707000643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikiforakis, N. & Engelmann, D. (2010) Altruistic punishment and the threat of feuds. Department of Economics, University of Melbourne.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikiforakis, N. & Normann, H. T. (2008) A comparative statics analysis of punishment in public-good experiments. Experimental Economics 11:358–69. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/971h6r48182358kw/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noussair, C. & Tucker, S. (2005) Combining monetary and social sanctions to promote cooperation. Economic Inquiry 43:649–60. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ei/cbi045.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohtsuki, H., Iwasa, Y., Nowak, M. A. (2009) Indirect reciprocity provides only a narrow margin of efficiency for costly punishment. Nature 457:79–82. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature07601.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2000) Collective action and the evolution of social norms. Journal of Economic Perspectives 14:137–58. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2646923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, E., Walker, J. & Gardner, R. (1992) Covenants with and without a sword: Self-governance is possible. American Political Science Review 86(2):404–17. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1964229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, T., Putterman, L. & Unel, B. (2005) Voluntary association in public goods experiments: Reciprocity, mimicry, and efficiency. Economic Journal 115:1032–53. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2005.01031.x/full.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richerson, P. J. & Boyd, R. (2005) Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human evolution. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rockenbach, B. & Milinski, M. (2006) The efficient interaction of indirect reciprocity and costly punishment. Nature 444(7120):718–23. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature05229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosas, A. (2008) The return of reciprocity: A psychological approach to the evolution of cooperation. Biology & Philosophy 24:555–66. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/index/p93381m4744v4g20.pdf.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, D. (2006) Evolutionary game theory and the normative theory of institutional design: Binmore and behavioral economics. Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 5:51–79. Available at: http://ppe.sagepub.com/content/5/1/51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roth, A., Prasnikar, V., Okuno-Fujiwara, M. & Zamir, S. (1991) Bargaining and market behavior in Jerusalem, Lubljana, Pittsburgh and Tokyo: An experimental study. American Economic Review 81:1068–95. Available at; http://www.jstor.org/stable/2006907.Google Scholar
Rustagi, D., Engel, S. & Kosfeld, M. (2010) Conditional cooperation and costly monitoring explain success in forest commons management. Science 330(6006):961–65. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/330/6006/961 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sahlins, M. (1972/1974) Stone Age economics. Aldine Transaction/Routledge. (Routledge edition, 1974, cited in Guala T.A.).Google Scholar
Sanfey, A. G., Rilling, J. K., Aaronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E. & Cohen, J. D. (2003) The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game. Science 300:1755–58. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/300/5626/1755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shang, J. & Croson, R. (2009) A field experiment in charitable contribution: The impact of social information on the voluntary provision of public goods. Economic Journal 119:1422–39. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02267.x/full.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sober, E. & Wilson, D. S. (1998) Unto others: The evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Herrnberger, B., Grön, G. & Fehr, E. (2007) The neural signature of norm compliance. Neuron 56:185–96. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S089662730700709X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starmer, C. (1999) Experiments in economics … (should we trust the dismal scientists in white coats?). Journal of Economic Methodology 6:1–30. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13501789900000001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steel, D. (2007) Across the boundaries: Extrapolation in biology and in the social sciences. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tom, S. M., Fox, C. R., Trepel, C. & Poldrack, R. A. (2007) The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk. Science 315:515–18. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5811/515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2822435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, ed. Campbell, B. G., pp. 136–207. Aldine.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (2004) Mutual benefits at all levels of life. [review of Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, Peter Hammerstein, Ed.] Science 304:964–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, C. (1961) The forest people. Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Ule, A., Schram, A., Riedl, A. & Cason, T. N. (2009) Indirect punishment and generosity towards strangers. Science 326(5960):1701–704. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/326/5960/1701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J. M. & Halloran, M. A. (2004) Rewards and sanctions and the provision of public goods in one-shot settings. Experimental Economics 7:235–47. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/u72765n343004k60/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiessner, P. (2005) Norm enforcement among the Ju/'hoansi bushmen: A case for strong reciprocity? Human Nature 16(2):115–45. Available at: http://www.springerlink.com/index/dg3m0660x4lgdl9t.pdf.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiessner, P. (2009) Experimental games and games of life among the Ju/'hoan Bushmen. Current Anthropology 50(1):133–38. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20479691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, D. S. (1979) Structured demes and trait-group variation. American Naturalist 113:606–10. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2460279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, D. S. & Sober, E. (1994) Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:585–654. Available at: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=6750548&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0140525X00036104 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xiao, E. & Houser, D. (2005) Emotion expression in human punishment behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102:7398–401. Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/102/20/7398.full.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yacubian, J., Gläscher, J., Schroeder, K., Sommer, T., Braus, D. F. & Büchel, C. (2006) Dissociable systems for gain- and loss-related value predictions and errors of prediction in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience 26:9530–37. Available at: http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/37/9530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yamagishi, T. (1986) The provision of a sanctioning system as a public good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:110–16. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022351407601885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar