This preliminary mixed methods study utilized an online survey and phone interviews to examine the benefits, challenges and user experience of farmers utilizing hydroponic shipping container farms (HSCFs). Due to the novelty of this crop production method, and thus the relatively small number of commercial farmers adopting this technology, 12 commercial HSCF businesses, of 46 identified online and via social media, participated in this study. Because population size was small, and 11 of the 12 farms had been in business a very short amount of time (two years or less), the following results are preliminary. The results showed that HSCFs gave farmers the ability to produce locally, sustainably and in new areas. Seventy-five percent of the farmers (n = 9) strongly agreed or agreed that the HSCF helped their farm become more productive, did everything they expected it to do and was efficient. Most participants were satistifed (n = 8; 66.7%) with their HSCFs; one was very satisfied (8.3%), while others were neutral (n = 1; 8.3%) and dissatisfied (n = 2; 16.7%). Participant expectations were most met regarding incorporation of technology, reduced resource use and efficiency; however, 50.0% of the farmers (n = 6) disagreed or strongly disagreed that the HSCF was profitable. Some farmers reported that HSCFs are efficient in production, although their units were not as productive and profitable, nor as user friendly as they expected. Regarding HSCF challenges, power usage and startup costs were ranked most highly, while finding labor was the least challenging. Following phone interviews with three profitable farmers, it was revealed that their success was due to growing local food that was in demand by their community. While this study identified several challenges of HSCFs, this technology may have benefits, for example in areas with limited arable land and water resources, and may offer some farmers a way to be profitable, especially by tapping the growing consumer demand for local produce.

The supplementation of nitrogen can be increased by the use of nitrogen-fixing, diazotrophic bacteria such as Azospirillum brasilense. These bacteria can act to promote plant growth in various plant species, including corn (Zea mays L.). However, there is a need to understand the behavior of these bacteria in different agricultural systems. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect on the growth and yield of corn inoculated with A. brasilense, and to identify the type of farming system which benefited most from the use of A. brasilense-based inoculants. The experiment conducted over two corn crop seasons was arranged in a 6 × 2 factorial scheme, consisting of six farming systems and the presence or absence of inoculation with the bacteria A. brasilense. The farming systems were derived from a long-term experiment with different fertilization systems that has been conducted since 1984. Among these systems, there were three conventional systems (CNT1: conventional no-till without fertilizer; CNT2: conventional no-till with 150 kg ha−1 of mineral fertilizer + 50 kg ha−1 of urea; CNT3: conventional no-till with 300 kg ha−1 of mineral fertilizer + 100 kg ha−1 of urea), and three organic systems (ONT1: organic no-till with 40 m3 ha−1 of organic compost; ONT2: organic no-till with 20 m3 ha−1 of organic compost; ONT3: organic no-till with 40 m3 ha−1 of organic compost and intercropped with Canavalia ensiformis). Although the Azospirillum population in the soil before planting was the same for all six systems, the count in the rhizospheric soil was higher in the organic systems, and there was no increase in that count due to inoculation. In this study, the only difference observed was within the CNT1 system, between the inoculated (CNT1-I) and uninoculated (CNT1-NI) treatments. In this system, inoculation resulted in an increase in plant height, in addition to higher concentrations of foliar N and P, and a higher plant survival rate, which culminated in higher yield. Corn inoculated with A. brasilense in the CNT1-I treatment showed a significant increase in yield—2839 kg ha−1 higher than that recorded for CNT1-NI. This study shows that, in the conventional low input treatment CNT1-I, inoculation with A. brasilense resulted in an increase in corn growth and yield.

Cropping system characteristics such as tillage intensity, crop identity, crop-livestock integration and the application of off-farm synthetic inputs influence weed abundance, plant community composition and crop-weed competition. The resulting plant community, in turn, has species-specific effects on soil microbial communities which can impact the growth and competitive ability of subsequent plants, completing a plant–soil feedback (PSF) loop. Farming systems that minimize the negative impacts of PSFs on subsequent crop growth can increase the sustainability of the farming enterprise. This study sought to assess the individual and combined impact of the cropping system (certified organic-grazed, certified organic till and conventional no-till) and crop sequence [pairwise rotations with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum)] on the PSF magnitude and direction. All cropping systems followed the same 5-year rotation and had completed one full rotation before soil was sampled. In a greenhouse setting, a sterile soil mix was inoculated with field soil collected from all systems and three crops. The PSF study consisted of two stages (conditioning and response phases) that mimicked the rotation stages occurring in the field. PSFs were calculated by comparing the biomass of the response phase plants grown in inoculated and uninoculated soils. The farm management system affected PSFs, inferring that tillage reduction can encourage more positive PSFs. Crop sequence did not affect PSF but interacted strongly with the farm system. As such, the effects of the farming system on PSFs are best illustrated when taken into account with the identity of the previous and current crops of a cropping sequence.

Due to correlations between purchasing patterns and diet disparities, differences in food shopping patterns and strategies across income levels and other socio-economic characteristics is a widely-studied research area. Most extant literature uses either primary or secondary data, which are often characterized by, respectively, limited geographical scope and considerable level of detail, or wide geographical reach but low detail. That literature also reveals contrasting results based on methods, data sources and geographic location. In this paper, we use three different datasets to characterize the differences in purchasing patterns across income levels, rural–urban status and other variables of food shoppers in the Northeastern USA and compare these trends with existing research. While many of the findings corroborate previous studies, new findings include less reliance on superstores overall, except for rural respondents, and a greater reliance on limited assortment supermarkets for SNAP and low-income households. Food purchasing differences are described by race and ethnicity, income and education, and children in the household. The analysis presented here includes a portion of the work performed by an interdisciplinary team of researchers engaged in the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture's Agriculture and Food Research Initiative project Enhancing Food Security in the Northeast (EFSNE). By using primary data from shoppers' intercept surveys, and secondary data from two large datasets, one of household food purchases and the other of food expenditures, we identify purchasing decisions holding at both the case-study (limited geography) and broader geographic (entire Northeast) levels, which both support previous findings and reveal the need for additional research in this area.

Manufactured biobased mulch (biomulch) films and fabrics are useful non-chemical weed management tools, but are not typically used for high-density plantings of vegetables such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus). However, it may be possible for crop roots to grow through a permeable biomulch membrane. Our objective was to demonstrate the potential for lettuce and carrot to germinate on and grow through biomulch, and assess changes in crop growth and yield. Biomulches included a 100% polylactic acid (PLA) biofabric and a PLA (37%) + soybean meal (63%) biofabric (PLA + SOY). Seeds were placed directly on biomulch and top-dressed with a soil mix or compost. Crop roots grew through the biomulch (despite visible constriction in carrot), and total yields were either the same or greater than those in the no-mulch control. PLA + SOY increased lettuce yield by 72% and also degraded faster than the PLA mulch. Results hold promise for improving weed control and reducing labor in high-density vegetable plantings.

Kernza® intermediate wheatgrass [Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) Barkworth & Dewey], the first perennial grain crop to come to market in North America, can provide a number of ecosystem services when integrated into cropping systems that are dominated by annual grain crops. However, grain yield from Kernza is lower than comparable annual cereal crops such as wheat and oats. Also, although Kernza is a long-lived perennial that can persist for decades, grain yield tends to decline over time as Kernza stands age leading most farmers to replant or rotate to a different crop after 3–5 yrs. Increased intraspecific competition as stand density increases with age has been reported to cause grain yield declines. We investigated the effect of strip-tillage applied at two different timings, between the third and fourth grain harvests, from a Kernza stand in upstate New York. Strip-tillage applied in late fall as plants were entering dormancy increased grain yield by 61% when compared to the control treatment without strip-tillage. However, total crop biomass was not reduced resulting in a greater harvest index for the fall strip-tillage treatment. Strip-tillage applied before stem elongation the following spring reduced overall tiller density and total crop biomass but did not impact tiller fertility or grain yield compared to the control treatment without strip-tillage. Increased grain yield in the fall strip-tillage treatment was due to an increase in the percentage of tillers that produced mature seedheads. This suggests that grain yield decline over time is at least partially caused by competition between tillers in dense stands. Results support further research and development of strip-tillage and other forms of managed disturbance as tools for maintaining Kernza grain yield over time.

Availability of organic foods has been increasing in the United States due to consumer demand for food produced with a lower environmental footprint. Surveys show that organic consumers view organic food as safer and of higher quality, but a number of food-borne outbreaks have been linked to organic produce in recent years. This outcome suggests that improved food safety protocols are needed to ensure food safety along organic food chains. In this study, model integrated crop–livestock organic systems were established in three states (Iowa, Minnesota and Pennsylvania) to evaluate biological performance and food safety aspects. Organically raised cattle and their feed/forage, feces, hide and meat were examined for the presence of two pathogens, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. Results confirmed that E. coli O157:H7 was not isolated on any hide or meat samples. Across all sites, the prevalence rate for E. coli O157:H7 on feed/forage and fecal matter was 9.43 and 7.26%, respectively. Salmonella spp. was isolated from 1.89, 3.33 and 18.6% of feed, fecal and hide samples, respectively. Salmonella spp. was not detected on any meat samples. While Salmonella spp. rates on hides were greater than those in feed and fecal samples, the prevalence rate of both pathogens on cattle hides was lower than in previous studies. The use of an organic fly repellent containing essential oils in this study would need to be investigated further to determine any correlation between its use and lower pathogen rates on hides. Feed/forage was more likely to test positive for E. coli O157:H7 from June through August, indicating the importance of strict sanitary measures to prevent feed contamination during summer months. These results suggest that careful adherence to food safety management strategies can help reduce the risk of bacterial contamination in integrated crop–livestock systems.

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) is one of the most important pests in organic sweet corn (Zea mays) production. Breeding of corn earworm-resistant varieties has been identified as a potential approach to deal with this pest, but it is critical that plant breeding efforts reflect the contexts and needs of organic producers who might eventually adopt earworm-resistant varieties. In November–December 2017, we surveyed organic sweet corn producers in the U.S. to learn about impacts of corn earworm on organic sweet corn production, how producers are currently managing the pest and opportunities for plant breeding to reduce its overall impact. The survey confirmed that corn earworm is the most challenging insect pest for organic sweet corn producers, that current management options remain limited and that earworm-resistant varieties could improve the ability of growers to consistently produce damage-free sweet corn and to improve the value of sweet corn within organic operations.

What is the role of Northeastern agricultural products in the US food system? This paper presents a typology that categorizes where agricultural production and distribution of a specific geographic area, in this case a multi-state region, fits within the US food system. The place of each food is defined based on its production volume, scope of distribution, market timing and agro-ecological niche. Six distinct roles that a region might play in supplying food are identified: (a) the region is a national production center, (b) the region is a seasonally important supplier, (c) regional production and distribution is the primary scale for supplying a food, (d) the product occupies an agro-ecological niche, (e) a product is a co-product of another industry in the region, and (f) the product is marketed explicitly for its geographic provenance as a local or regional product. Illustrative examples of each role are provided from the research of the Enhancing Food Security in the Northeast (EFSNE) regional food systems project. The examples draw from a variety of methodological approaches including regional self-reliance analysis, product case studies, supply chain models, and examination of spatial and temporal patterns in crop and livestock production and marketing. While presented in the context of the Northeast, the typology would likely be valuable for characterizing other regions of the country. We need such a typology to better understand and communicate the value of geographically dispersed agricultural production to creating a resilient food system, thereby improving our decisions of how to respond to future agricultural challenges

Exclusion netting systems are effective in various contexts and are increasingly used to control crop pests. However, factors affecting pollination management under nets are poorly known. The pollination effectiveness of commercial bumble bee hives of Bombus impatiens Cresson (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was studied for apple production under exclusion netting systems in a research orchard located in Quebec, Canada during 2016–2017. Sixteen single-row plots of apple trees (plot length: 18.5 m, cultivar GingerGold) were subjected to one of the following four treatments during bloom: (1) introduction of a bumble bee hive placed at the end of the row, under nets; (2) introduction of a bumble bee hive placed in the middle of the row, under nets; (3) negative control with no pollinators, under nets and (4) agronomic control with nearby bee hives (<50 m), without nets. Resulting post-harvest fruit quality (e.g., fruit weight, size, number and distribution of seeds) was evaluated, as well as correlations between bumble bee visitation rates and fruit quality parameters were evaluated. Results suggest that bumble bees provided adequate pollination under exclusion netting systems and that resulting fruit quality was equivalent to that of apple fruit conventionally pollinated by honey bees and wild bees community (bumble bees and other bees) in the orchard environment. Positioning bumble bee hives in the middle of the row provided better fruit load homogeneity in pollinated trees. Additional discussion on bumble bees as apple pollinators and on pollen distribution methods is also included.

Cover crops can generate both on-farm and water-quality benefits. However, their use in Iowa remains subdued, partly due to implementation costs faced by farmers. We tested the hypothesis that monetary incentives through cost-share programs are effective at increasing the area of farmland planted to cover crops in Iowa, as opposed to the alternative in which the participants of cost-share programs would have planted the same cover-crop acreage in the absence of payment. We found that cost-share payments induced a 15 percentage-point expansion in cover-crop acreage beyond what would have been planted in the absence of payment, among farmers who participated in cost-share programs. The estimated additionality rate was 54%, suggesting at least half of cost-share expenditures funded cover-crop acreage that would not have been planted without payment. Furthermore, we estimated the public cost to reduce nitrogen loads to Iowa waterways via cover crop, beyond what would have occurred in the absence of cost-share programs, to be $1.72–$4.70 lb−1 N ($3.79–$10.36 kg−1 N). Farmers absorbed about 70% of those costs as private losses, and cost-share payments offset the remaining 30%. Although the additionality rate estimated in this study is less than what has been found in other states, the cost-share programs in Iowa have been relatively cost-effective, due to their lower payment rate.

Growing winter cereal rye (Secale cereale) (WCR) has been identified as an effective in-field practice to reduce nitrate-N and phosphorus (P) losses to Upper Mississippi River Basin, USA. In the Midwestern USA, growers are reluctant to plant WCR especially prior to corn (Zea mays L.) due to N immobilization and establishment issues. Precision planting of WCR or ‘skipping the corn row’ (STCR) can minimize some issues associated with WCR ahead of corn while reducing cover crop seed costs. The objective of this study was to compare the effectiveness of ‘STCR’ vs normal planting of WCR at full seeding rate (NP) on WCR biomass, nutrient uptake and composition in three site-yrs (ARC2019, ARC2020, BRC2020). Our results indicated no differences in cover crop dry matter biomass production between the STCR (2.40 Mg ha−1) and NP (2.41 Mg ha−1) supported by similar normalized difference vegetative index and plant height for both treatments. Phosphorus, potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) accumulation in aboveground biomass was only influenced by site-yr and both STCR and NP removed similar amount of P, K, Ca and Mg indicating STCR could be as effective as NP in accumulating nutrients. Aboveground carbon (C) content (1086.26 kg h−1 average over the two treatments) was similar between the two treatments and only influenced by site-yr differences. Lignin, lignin:N and C:N ratios were higher in STCR than NP in one out of three site-yrs (ARC2019) indicating greater chance of N immobilization when WCR was planted later than usual. Implementing STCR saved $8.4 ha−1 for growers and could incentivize growers to adopt this practice. Future research should evaluate corn response to STCR compared with NP and assess if soil quality declines by STCR practice over time.

In many US states, the power to regulate urban agriculture (UA) rests in local governments. Although there has been increased interest in UA, some local governments have been slow to adopt policies or ordinances to foster food production in urban areas or have actively sought to limit UA in their municipalities. To learn more about the disconnect between resident interest and local government policy, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension and Center for Public Issues Education conducted a statewide survey of local government stakeholders (LGS) to assess their attitudes toward UA, subjective knowledge of UA, perceived benefits of and barriers to the implementation of UA and educational needs. Responses were collected using 5-point semantic differential and Likert-type scales. Overall, respondents displayed positive attitudes and moderate knowledge of UA, and they identified a number of benefits of and barriers to implementing UA in their communities. The findings of this study support the hypothesis that lack of basic knowledge about UA is one difficulty in fostering UA. Despite being positively disposed toward UA, LGS may not fully understand how to effectively develop and implement policies to foster UA. This finding may also help explain reluctance to adopt local government policies to support UA. Efforts to provide LGS key information and enhance their knowledge of UA may support the development of UA activities.

Pollination services are critical for food production. Although domesticated honey bees are important pollinators in agriculture, there is growing interest in supporting naturally occurring wild bees. Diversifying pollination management strategies by encouraging healthy wild bee communities may be especially useful for growers of insect-pollinated crops, such as apples. Although research has identified several land management practices that can enhance local pollinator communities on farms, there are few studies on the factors that influence growers to adopt pollinator-supporting actions on their land. Here, we surveyed 75 Canadian apple growers and used regression models to explore the influence of farm characteristics and perceptions about bees on the likelihood of adopting 15 unique pollinator-supporting practices. We also provide a descriptive analysis of growers' pollination management practices and self-assessed resourcefulness on the ability to improve habitat for wild pollinators on the farm. We found that an increase in three variables: awareness of wild bees, perception of the severity of threats facing wild populations, and the perception of the benefits provided by wild bees is associated with more pollinator-supporting practices on the farm. Overall, growers were less likely to adopt pollinator-friendly practices as the fraction of rented land increased and as the perceived costs of implementing these practices rose. We found ‘low-hanging fruit’ (i.e., pollinator-supporting practices that could be easily and inexpensively implemented) were adopted by less than one-third of growers and that the majority of those surveyed had little to no knowledge on what actions to take if they wanted to improve their farms for wild bees or where to go for that knowledge. Our results suggest that policies and programs that focus on raising grower awareness of wild bees, increasing grower perception of their benefits, and reducing the perceived costs of implementing pollinator-supporting practices may positively affect their uptake. A deeper understanding of grower perceptions will provide essential insight into how growers may contribute to wild pollinator conservation while potentially increasing agricultural production and reducing vulnerability borne of heavy reliance on managed pollinators.

Organic grain producers are interested in reducing tillage to conserve soil and decrease labor and fuel costs. We examined agronomic and economic tradeoffs associated with alternative strategies for reducing tillage frequency and intensity in a cover crop–soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) sequence within a corn (Zea mays L.)–soybean–spelt (Triticum spelta L.) organic cropping system experiment in Pennsylvania. Tillage-based soybean production preceded by a cover crop mixture of annual ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and forage radish (Raphanus sativus L.) interseeded into corn grain (Z. mays L.) was compared with reduced-tillage soybean production preceded by roller-crimped cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) that was sown after corn silage. Total aboveground weed biomass did not differ between soybean production strategies. Each strategy, however, was characterized by high inter-annual variability in weed abundance. Tillage-based soybean production marginally increased grain yield by 0.28 Mg ha−1 compared with reduced-tillage soybean. A path model of soybean yield indicated that soybean stand establishment and weed biomass were primary drivers of yield, but soybean production strategy had a measurable effect on yields due to factors other than within-season weed–crop competition. Cumulative tillage frequency and intensity were quantified for each cover crop—sequence using the Soil Tillage Intensity Rating (STIR) index. The reduced-tillage soybean sequence resulted in 50% less soil disturbance compared to tillage-based soybean sequence across study years. Finally, enterprise budget comparisons showed that the reduced-tillage soybean sequence resulted in lower input costs than the tillage-based soybean sequence but was approximately $114 ha−1 less profitable because of lower average yields.

Feeding monogastric livestock in organic agriculture is challenging due to several tradeoffs between animal welfare aspects, resource efficiency, as well as ecological and social sustainability. Organic standards may even increase such conflicts, as is currently the case with upcoming new regulations regarding restrictions of feed sources for organic pigs in Europe. In order to contribute data for balancing reasons to minimize tradeoffs, we compared four different piglet diets, each targeted to reach a high protein quality by either a high proportion of soybean cake (SOY), inclusion of milk powder (MILK), fermentatively produced lysine (LYS) or conventional potato protein (POT). All diets were designed to meet the nutritional requirements of piglets in the best possible way, however they all represented different conflicts with either organic regulations or sustainability goals. In each of five consecutive runs, respectively three litters were assigned to every dietary treatment, resulting in 15 litters per treatment in total. In each litter, seven focus animals were defined. The piglets were studied from birth until 58 days of age. They were weaned at day 46 and sold from the farm at day 58. Piglets were individually weighed at an average age of 3, 21, 43, 50 and 58 days with simultaneous assessment of body condition score (BCS) and prevalence of diarrhea. Feed intake (FI) was recorded litter wise weekly, starting from week three. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated for the period after weaning. Statistical analysis was executed using linear mixed effect models. Regarding FI, FCR and daily weight gains, no treatment effect was found. Only at day 21, BCS was lower for piglets receiving POT. Prevalence of diarrhea increased after weaning for all treatments. All four tested diets led to similar weight gains and feed conversion in the piglets. Animals fed diet POT recovered better from diarrhea compared to the other treatments. A high soybean cake content or lysine supplementation in the diet was disadvantageous with regard to the occurrence of diarrhea. LYS diet led to signs of threonine deficit, indicating that lysine addition alone may not solve the issue. The addition of milk powder provided no extra benefit. In recognition of the health benefits, the use of 5% potato protein, even if it is sourced from conventional production, must still be considered as a sustainable option for feeding organic piglets. The sustainability implications are discussed in the paper.

Food and nutrition insecurity in southern Africa call for improvements in traditional agriculture systems. Conservation Agriculture (CA) based on minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop diversification has been implemented as a strategy to maintain yields while safeguarding the environment. However, less focus has been placed on potential synergistic benefits on nutrition security. Maize-based systems may increase household income through selling but may not lead to proportionate reduction in malnutrition. Crop diversification in CA systems can have a direct impact on the nutritional status of farm households due to improved dietary diversity. Here we assess how the integration of grain legumes, cowpeas and soybeans, in maize-based CA systems either as intercrops or rotational crops affects maize grain yield and stability, total energy yield, protein yield and surplus calories after satisfying the daily requirement per household. The experiments were carried out from 2012 to 2020 (nine consecutive cropping seasons) in six eastern Zambian on-farm communities using 966 observations. Results show that intercropping compromises maize yields with marginal yield penalties of −5% compared to no-till monocropping. However, intercropped yields were more stable across environments. Total system caloric energy and protein yield were highest in intercropping systems due to higher productivity per unit land area owing to the additive contribution of both maize and legumes. Total system caloric energy and protein yield reached yearly averages of 60 GJ ha−1 and 517 kg ha−1, respectively, for the intercropping system as compared to 48 GJ ha−1 and 263 kg ha−1 in monocropped maize systems. Tillage-based monocrop resulted in the least stable yields. Our results suggest that intercropping maize with grain legumes in CA systems is a promising option for smallholder farming households to improve dietary diversity, dietary quality and stability of yields thus contributing to sustainable agriculture intensification while maintaining food and nutrition security.

In agricultural regions, like Whatcom County, Washington, crop and dairy production co-exist, but increased agricultural specialization and intensification have divorced what was, historically, an integrated approach to production. This agricultural segregation contributes to farm, regional and watershed-scale nutrient imbalances, and several different management approaches have been devised to improve, correct and close these nutrient cycling disparities. In high-density production regions, utilizing locally produced bio-based fertilizers may provide one avenue toward closing regional nutrient loops. Technologies such as dairy-operated nutrient recovery systems may help improve the flow of nutrients between dairy and cropping systems by extracting nutrients from raw manure and producing materials that are more easily used on farms than raw manure. To evaluate the potential impact of a nutrient recovery system and its related product, we estimated nitrogen balances between cropland use and manure production within Whatcom County, Washington and examined a theoretical scenario in which a specific nutrient recovery product was utilized across the region. We considered one economic barrier, transportation cost, and calculated a hypothetical comparison for transporting nitrogen in two forms, a downstream nutrient recovery product and raw manure. The scenarios presented here demonstrate a potential gap between regional nutrient supply and demand, illustrate the tradeoffs with a technological approach, and make clear that both technological tools and practical management strategies are needed to address the challenges of redistributing nutrients in high-density production areas.

Green manures are a promising alternative for achieving the sustainable production of maize in the face of low soil fertility and increasingly long canicule periods, particularly in rainfed systems associated with the reproduction of local agrobiodiversity. However, it is necessary to investigate what are the advantages and disadvantages associated with different species of native and exotic pulse, as well as their overall contribution to the sustainable production of maize landraces. In order to do so, we followed the MESMIS method to assess five species of pulse (three native and two exotic) grown with maize in two plots with different soil conditions. This was done in the seasons of 2017 and 2018 the municipality of Villa de Zaachila, Oaxaca, a site with remarkable biological, agricultural and cultural diversity. A fully randomized complete block design was implemented with 11 treatments and three repetitions in the two plots. The output variables of the experiment were: land equivalence ratio, interspecific aggressiveness, content of soil organic matter, decomposition rate, plant survival rate and plant dry biomass. We also evaluated quantitative or qualitative indicators of cost, adaptability and contribution to food security. For all the possible maize-pulse combinations, except for one, polyculture outperformed maize and pulse monocultures. Exotic pulses (Crotalaria junscens spp. and Dolicho lablab) had a better performance in biomass, reincorporation of organic matter and possible nitrogen fixation, as well as greater resistance to drought in the second cycle. The native pulses (Phaseolus vulgaris and Phaseolus coccineus), however, had a greater acceptance and economic output and are important for the food security in our study site. Our results provide quantitative and qualitative elements to design combined schemes of green manures associated with maize that would help tackle current challenges regarding maize productivity, food security and response to climate change.

The success of sustainable Theobroma cacao (cocoa) production depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soils on which they are established but these are possibly moderated by the management approach that farmers adopt. We assessed and compared soil physico-chemical properties of young, mature and old organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems at two depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm) and evaluated the production of cocoa pods, banana and plantain in the two farm types. Cocoa farms under organic management had 20, 81, 88 and 323% higher stocks of soil organic carbon, P, Mn and Cu, respectively, compared to those under conventional management. Higher soil moisture content, electrical conductivity and pH were found on organic systems than the conventional farms. Annual cocoa pod production per tree was similar in both cocoa systems (Org. 10.1 ± 1.1 vs Con. 10.1 ± 0.6 pods per tree). The annual production of banana and plantain was higher on organic farms (186.3 ± 34.70 kg ha−1 yr−1) than conventional systems (31.6 ± 9.58 kg ha−1 yr−1). We concluded that organic management of cocoa agroforestry systems result in soils with the greater overall quality for cocoa production than conventional management and it increases the yield of co-products. Studies focusing on the impact of organic management on cocoa agroforestry systems at the landscape and regional scales are urgently needed to further deepen our understanding and support policy.