This paper describes the results of 3 year's data from farmers using the Adaptive Yam Minisett Technique (AYMT) to produce seed yams in Nigeria. A total of 30 sites were established each year between 2013 and 2015 in the Idah area (Kogi State) of Nigeria and 58 plots in the Amoke area (Benue State) in 2015. Each site had yam setts (80 to 100 g) untreated and treated with a pesticide ‘dip’ prior to planting and farmers (male and female) were free to select the variety and manage the sites as they wished. In line with previous research, the results suggest that treatment does increase the weight of tubers produced by a sett but not necessarily the number of tubers. Varietal differences were also observed. For the first time, the results suggest that the time of planting does have a significant impact on seed tuber weight, with later planting leading to small tubers. Also, the gender of the farmer had an impact on some of the agronomic variables, with male owners of the site generally producing more and larger tubers per sett planted and sprouted than female owners. Various mechanisms for the latter are discussed in the paper.

Two field experiments were conducted during the rainy seasons of 2013 and 2014 to evaluate the effects of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and/or sowing N fertilization on the growth and yield of Phaseolus vulgaris L. In addition, leaf soluble protein content (LSPC) was measured at four growth stages in both seasons. Plants were subjected to the following treatments: only fertilized with 20 kg N ha−1 at sowing and with 40 kg N ha−1 at 25 days after emergence (DAE) (F); only inoculated with Rhizobium tropici strain SEMIA 4080 at sowing and fertilized with 40 kg N ha−1 at 25 DAE (I+N); and inoculated and fertilized with 20 kg N ha−1 at sowing and with 40 kg N ha−1 at 25 DAE (IF). An additional treatment was done only in the second season and plants were inoculated with no N fertilization at any phase (I−N). Crop growth rate and leaf area index were enhanced by IF and F treatments as compared to I+N treatment, however, net assimilation rate did not differ among the treatments. At the pollination and flowering stages for seasons, LSPC was significantly increased by IF treatment, which also caused the highest final yield compared with the remaining treatments in both seasons. Therefore, the fertilization with 20 kg N ha−1 at sowing together with inoculation and 40 kg N ha−1 at 25 DAE is recommended for obtaining high yield in bean cultivation with high technology. As the inoculation with Rhizobium at sowing and fertilization with 40 kg N ha−1 at 25 DAE (I+N) had the same crop yield as plants fertilized at sowing and at 25 DAE (F), it can be recommended for a low-cost technology cultivation employed by small farmers.

This paper aims to determine the influence of family farming features on efficient use of water. The analysis focusses on a random sample of family farms in the province of Almería, southeast Spain. A hierarchical regression model was conducted to determine how the water efficiency is related to environmental awareness and certain characteristics of farmers, decision-makers and the family farm itself. The results show that these family farms strive to be more efficient in their use of water when they are going to be inherited, when there are younger decision-makers who have received a better education, and also when women are involved. Moreover, this efficiency is positively related to more ecological production and to the farmer's habitual behaviour with respect to water economy. The study provides evidence regarding the influences of socio-economic and environmental features of family farming on water use efficiency that may prove useful for other analyses and policy makers on water management in agriculture.

Smallholder farmers in Malawi are faced with the challenge of managing complex and dynamic farming systems while also adapting to change within volatile agroecological conditions. Moreover, management decisions are influenced by a combination of local knowledge, expert recommendations and on-farm experimentation. Although many smallholder farmers actively experiment with new crops and technologies, little is known about the prevalence of experimentation or the types of experiments farmers conduct. This study examined the decision-making processes of experimenting farmers to explore the drivers of on-farm experimentation. Using a mixed-methods design that incorporated field observations, survey data and in-depth interviews, we identified numerous examples of experiments with new crops, varieties and techniques that had been executed either independently or through participation in an agricultural development project. Results of quantitative and qualitative analysis reveal that smallholder farmers in Malawi across a range of socioeconomic characteristics are inclined to experiment, and gender roles in agricultural experimentation vary widely. While experimental methods differ between farmers, there are commonalities in the drivers of experimentation, including adapting to climate change, improving soil health, improving nutrition and generating income. Smallholders have a great capacity for experimentation, and their knowledge, experience, preferences and priorities – if properly understood and incorporated – could ultimately benefit both future agricultural development projects and their participants.

Legume crops are not usually fertilised with mineral N. However, there are at least two agronomic cases when it would be advantageous to distribute N fertiliser to legume crops: at sowing, before the onset of nodule functioning, and when a legume is intercropped with a cereal. We highlight the impact of various levels of fertiliser nitrogen on grain yield, nodulation capacity and biological nitrogen fixation in the four most common grain legume crops grown in central Italy. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), field bean (Vicia faba L. var. minor), pea (Pisum sativum L.) and white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) were grown in soil inside growth boxes for two cropping seasons with five nitrogen fertilisation rates: 0, 40, 80, 120 and 160 kg ha−1. In both years, experimental treatments (five crops and five levels of N) were arranged in a randomised block design. We found that unfertilised plants overall yielded grain, total biomass and nitrogen at a similar level to plants supplied with 80–120 kg ha−1 of mineral nitrogen. However, above those N rates, the production of chickpea, pea and white lupin decreased, thus indicating that the high supply of N fertiliser decreased the level of N2 fixed to such an extent that the full N2-fixing potential might not be achieved. In all four grain legumes, the amount of N2 fixed was positively related to nodule biomass, which was inversely related to the rate of the N fertiliser applied. The four grain legumes studied responded differently to N fertilisation: in white lupin and chickpea, the amount of nitrogen derived from N2 fixation linearly decreased with increasing N supply as a result of a reduction in nodulation and N2 fixed per unit mass of nodules. Conversely, in field bean and pea, the decrease in N2 fixation was only due to a reduction in nodule biomass since nodule fixation activity increased with N supply. Our results suggest that the legume species and the N rate are critical factors in determining symbiotic N2-fixation responses to N fertilisation.

Accessions of four Saccharum spp. from the world collection of sugarcane germplasm maintained at the ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute Research Center, Kannur, Kerala State, India, were screened against Chilo sacchariphagus indicus (Kapur) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), commonly known as internode borer. Observations on the progression of borer attack in the most susceptible Saccharum officinarum indicated that the incidence began in the first fortnight of July, increased in the next 2 months and reached its peak in September. Thereafter, the incidence decreased in the next 2 months but reached its overall peak in December. Simple correlation coefficients between mean monthly weather parameters and borer incidence were not significant. Percent of canes attacked was significantly lower in 2011 than in 2012 for S. officinarum, Saccharum barberi and Saccharum sinense but did not differ between the years for Saccharum robustum. Amongst the four Saccharum spp., S. robustum showed the lowest borer incidence whereas S. officinarum recorded the lowest attack intensity. Whilst infestation index showed the same trend as percent canes attacked, percent deadhearts did not differ amongst the four Saccharum spp. Considering the 171 accessions evaluated, 29 (16.9%) accessions were resistant, 39 (22.8%) moderately resistant and 103 (60.2%) susceptible to internode borer. Out of the 39 accessions of S. officinarum, none occupied the resistant category whereas 17.9% were in the moderately resistant category. In S. robustum, whilst nearly half (44.5%) the accessions emerged as resistant, a considerable number occupied the moderately resistant category. In S. barberi, no accession was resistant to the borer. In S. sinense, only one accession each represented resistant and moderately resistant categories. Plant morphological characters, yield and quality parameters did not show clear-cut relationship with the three infestation parameters.

Innovation Platforms (IPs) have become a popular vehicle in agricultural research for development (AR4D). The IP promise is that integrating scientific and local knowledge results in innovations that can have impact at scale. Many studies have uncovered how IPs work in various countries, value chains and themes. The conclusion is clear: IPs generate enthusiasm and can bring together stakeholders to effectively address specific problems and achieve ‘local’ impact. However, few studies focus on ‘mature’ IPs and whether or not these achieve impact at a ‘higher’ scale: address systems trade-offs to guide decision making, focus on integration of multiple commodities, reach a large number of beneficiaries and learn from their failures. This study evaluates the impact of mature IPs in AR4D by analysing the success factors of eight case studies across three continents. Although we found pockets of IP success and impact, these were rarely achieved at scale. We therefore critically question the use of IPs as a technology dissemination and scaling mechanism in AR4D programs that aim to benefit the livelihoods of many farmers in developing countries. Nevertheless, we do find that IPs can fulfil an important role in AR4D. If the IP processes are truly demand-driven, participatory and based on collective investment and action, they have the ability to bring together committed stakeholders, and result in innovations that are technically sound, locally adapted, economically feasible for farmers, and socially, culturally and politically acceptable. Several of our cases show that if these IPs are firmly embedded in other public and private extension mechanisms and networks, they can allow the technologies or other types of innovations to scale out beyond the original IP scope, geographical focus or target audience. We see a need for more rigorous, accurate and continuous measurement of IP performance which can contribute to adaptive management of IPs, better understanding of ‘what works’ in terms of process design and facilitation, as well as to cost-benefit analysis of IPs as compared to other approaches that aim to contribute to agricultural development.

Grain yields of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] in the Nigerian savannas are low even with the cultivation of improved varieties. The recommended spacing for cowpea is 75 × 20 cm with two seeds planted per stand. This corresponds to plant population of 133333 plants ha−1, which may not be sufficient for optimal cowpea yield. Field experiments were conducted to determine plant density effects on cowpea performance in the Northern Guinea and the Sudan savannas of Nigeria and also to determine if genotypes varied in their response to plant density. Four cowpea varieties with contrasting maturity duration were planted in single, double and triple rows on ridges spaced 75 cm apart to achieve corresponding densities of 133333, 266666 and 400000 plants ha−1, respectively. Plant densities of 266666 and 400000 plants ha−1 gave higher crop performance in terms of light interception, biomass production, yield and yield components for all cowpea varieties. Yield increases were related largely to increased pod and seed production but the effect of seed size on yield was relatively minor. Our results provide evidence that the current density of 133333 plants ha−1 used by farmers is not optimum for cowpea production. Smallholder farmers can increase cowpea grain and fodder yields if they use a density of 266666 plants ha−1 in cowpea cultivation. Further yield increases when cowpea is planted at 400000 plants ha−1 may not be sufficient to offset the cost of seed.

The development of dendrometric methodologies could allow accurate estimation of variables associated with the crown, such as primary production (fruit and timber) and tree vigor. The aim of this work was to develop a suitable method to estimate woody biomass in plum trees (Prunus domestica L.) in Imbabura, Ecuador by using an adapted dendrometry. Form factors and regression models were defined for branch volume calculation. From this, the distribution of woody biomass in the crown tree was characterized in every stratum. Occupation Factor and regression models were obtained in order to calculate the biomass in the crown tree, which can be used to estimate the CO2 captured in its structure during its development. Regression models for calculation of whole volume of the tree and pruned biomass were directly obtained from crown diameter and crown height with Rajustated2 of 0.74 and 0.81. The average moisture content of green material was 51%, and the average density of dry material was 0.66 ± 0.07 g cm−3. Proximate analysis of plum wood showed at 79.8 ± 9.2% volatiles and 2.1 ± 0.3% ash. Elemental analysis of the wood pointed to 46.5 ± 1.2% C, 6.1 ± 0.5% H, 46.3 ± 1.2% O, 0.6 ± 0.3% N, 0.06 ± 0.02% S and 0.02 ± 0.01% Cl. Cl, S and N contents are lower than the limits established by the standard EN 14691-part 4. With 46% of C, considering the relation 3.67 (44/12) between CO2 and C content, the CO2 sequestrated in the materials is 1.11 Mg m−3 wood material. Such method represents a tool to manage orchard resources and for assessing other parameters, such as raw materials for cultivation, fruit production, CO2 sink and waste materials (residual wood) used for energy or industry.

This paper seeks to make an exploratory investigation regarding farmers who have been using an innovation for a relatively long period (established users), compared to farmers who have only recently started (recent users). Therefore, the aims of this research were to identify (i) the extent to which intentions, attitudes and social pressure are similar or different between these two groups and (ii) whether comparison of the groups can improve academic understanding and provide insights into what is influencing the uptake of innovations. The study was conducted with 80 farmers who are already engaged with the use of improved grassland. In order to develop an understanding of the differences in drivers of the adoption of new technology, the sample was divided into established users and recent users of the innovation. To identify differences between groups regarding farmer and farm characteristics, 11 quantitative variables were analysed through a dependent t-test. The theory of reasoned action (TRA) was used as a theoretical framework and the Spearman rank-order correlation was used in data analyses. To identify differences in farmers’ perceptions of the components of the TRA, we used the Mann–Whitney U test. The results showed that established users had stronger intention to use improved grassland in the next 12 months, which would be attributed to activity based on milk production as a main source of family income. Advantages of improved grassland included lower animal feeding expenses; increases in quantity, quality and availability of fodder production and increases in milk production. We concluded that established and recent users’ intention to use improved grassland over the 12 months was influenced in different ways. Established users’ intention to adopt was strongly influenced by normative beliefs, i.e. social pressure from salient referents, where the father, uncle and veterinarian played the most important role, whereas recent users’ intention was mainly influenced by behavioural beliefs (positive and negative beliefs regarding the innovation) and the variables that describe the farm characteristics, i.e. the advantages and disadvantages that farmers perceive of the use of improved grassland on their farms, which were also considered as drivers of adoption.