Results from research on controversial topics are often interpreted according to the world view of the reader. With conflicting results from different researchers or institutions, it is likely that vested financial interests or adherence to conventional wisdom will lead to rejection of science-based conclusions. An example from the past is the comparison of multiple cropping with monocrop systems, where clear advantages of complex systems are discounted by those committed to the monoculture paradigm. A current example is comparison of organic with conventional farming systems and food products, where food price, suspicion about certification and philosophy about perceived ‘non-scientific’ results cloud the technical conclusions. An emerging example is comparisons of local versus global food systems, where multiple issues including comparative advantage and food preferences obscure the key questions of energy investment, food equity and local well-being. A proposed solution to this dilemma is to instead focus scarce research funds on improving the development of alternative agroecosystems, rather than invest human energy into futile comparisons that are unlikely to convince the skeptics. In this way, more creative alternatives can be explored and greater progress made toward food equity and sufficiency.

Leaf-beet is a typical and very important protected cultivation crop in central Italy. In leaf-beet protected cultivation, weed control is one of the most important problems because of its fairly long crop cycle (approximately 4–5 months). The aim of this research was to set up an efficient non chemical weed control strategy performed with innovative machines built and set up by the University of Pisa. A two-year (2006–2007) ‘on-farm’ experimental trial was carried out in Crespina (PI). A conventional weed management technique (consisting of one pre-transplanting chemical treatment) was compared with an innovative physical weed control strategy in an organic production system (consisting of using a stale seedbed technique, in several post-emergence precision hoeing and in-row hand-weeding treatments). In the conventional technique, leaf-beet was manually transplanted, while it was sown with a precision pneumatic planter in the organic system. All innovative machines for physical weed control were adjusted and set up for the protected cultivation. Similar yields were recorded for the two systems in this two-year trial. Total labor time (for weed management and crop planting) was appreciably lower in the conventional system in the first year of the experiment (−67%), while in the second year, some improvement in the physical weed control techniques decreased labor needs with respect to the conventional technique (−40%). Weed dry biomass at harvest was significantly lower in the organic cropping system (on average −50%).

An analytical framework and ranking system is developed to summarize the primary factors affecting marketing channel performance and to prioritize those channels with the greatest opportunity for success. An application of the model is conducted using case-study evidence from four small-scale diversified vegetable crop producers in Central New York. The relative costs and benefits of alternative wholesale and direct marketing channels are investigated, including how the factors of risk, owner and paid labor, profits, lifestyle preferences and sales volume interact to impact optimal market channel selection. Given the highly perishable nature of the crops grown, along with the risks and potential sales volume of particular channels, a combination of different marketing channels is needed to maximize overall firm performance.

Direct marketing is a popular marketing practice among smaller producers in the United States. We conducted detailed case studies of three organic farming operations of different sizes and compared their marketing costs and profitability in alternative marketing channels. We classified marketing-related activities into three categories: packing and storage, transportation, and selling and administration. By measuring the costs for labor, purchased goods and services, and capital assets associated with these marketing activities, we determined that there are significant variations in marketing costs across marketing channels. For each of our three case-study farms, marketing costs per dollar of revenue were lowest in the wholesale channel and highest in the farmers' market channel. Significant labor costs for the selling activity and transportation expenses offset the higher prices and minimal packaging costs associated with farmers' markets. Profitability can also be significantly affected by marketing factors, such as packing and grading standards, and product that is used for sampling and consumer premiums. Our research demonstrates that the higher prices that producers earn from direct marketing rather than wholesaling are not pure profit; the price premiums are compensation for the costs they incur when direct marketing their produce. Direct marketing channels, such as farmers' markets and Community Supported Agriculture (CSAs), can enable smaller farmers to build financially viable operations, by gaining access to markets, growing their farming operations and reducing their marketing risk. However, to achieve this success, farmers must manage their marketing costs as well as their production costs.

In this research an alternative is proposed for viticulture producers that would allow them to maintain their income and prevent the abandonment of their agricultural activity. The proposed alternative is the production of organic wine with subsequent commercialization in the local market. The suitability of the alternative is measured by the acceptance of the product in local markets. This acceptance was determined through contingent valuation, which relates probability of purchase to willingness to pay (WTP). Since regional differences could exist for product acceptance, the preliminary hypothesis was formulated that the importance of the viticulture sector in the regional economy makes consumers value farm work more highly and pay more for sustainable agricultural practices. Two regions of Spain were taken into consideration because of the different weight of their agricultural activity: Castile-La Mancha and the Community of Valencia. A survey of 800 wine consumers was made (400 from each region) to determine WTP. From the results it was shown on the one hand that organizing organic wine in local markets can be a profitable alternative for wine producers and, on the other hand, consumers from regions where wine production shares a larger proportion of the regional economy are willing to pay more for organic wine.

In the US farmers often market pastured poultry eggs for a premium price, claiming animal and human health benefits. We examined how moving pastured hens to forage legumes or mixed grasses influenced hen (Gallus gallus L.) egg omega-3 fatty acids and concentrations of vitamins A and E. We also compared the eggs of the pastured hens to those of hens fed a commercial diet in cages. We used a cross-over design to compare pasture species: 75 sister hens were assigned to one of three pasture treatment groups: (1) alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), (2) red and white clover (Trifolium pretense L. and Trifolium repens L.) or (3) mixed cool season grasses. Groups were rotated to all three pasture treatments, each for 2 weeks and supplemented with 70 g commercial hen mash bird−1 day−1. Pasture botanical composition, forage mass, leaf to total ratio and plant fatty acid composition were compared among pasture treatments. Eggs of the pastured hens were compared to eggs of 50 sister hens that were fed only commercial hen mash in cages for the entire 6 weeks. Forage parameters varied somewhat, but did not explain plant linolenic acid variation. Seventeen of the 18 quantified egg fatty acids, and vitamin A concentrations did not (P<0.05) differ among the three pasture treatment groups. Eggs of the hens that foraged grasses had 23% more (P<0.0001) vitamin E than eggs of hens that foraged clover. Compared to eggs of the caged hens, pastured hens' eggs had twice as much vitamin E and long-chain omega-3 fats, 2.5-fold more total omega-3 fatty acids, and less than half the ratio of omega-6:omega-3 fatty acids (P<0.0001). Vitamin A concentration was 38% higher (P<0.05) in the pastured hens' eggs than in the caged hens' eggs, but total vitamin A per egg did not differ. At the end of the experiment, pastured hens weighed 14% less and averaged 15% lower hen-day egg production than caged birds (P<0.0001). Results suggest that grass pastures may enhance vitamin E in eggs of pastured hens more than clover, and pastured hens supplemented with commercial mash will produce eggs with significantly more vitamin E and total omega-3 fatty acids compared to eggs from caged hens fed only commercial hen mash. Pastured hens may have lower body weight and egg production than caged hens, unless they are supplemented adequately to meet their dietary energy and crude protein needs.

In order to increase ecological horticulture in Sweden, it is necessary to increase productivity while reducing working hours. To improve the relevance of research results as a base for such transitions, a Participatory Learning and Action Research (PLAR) group was added to a conventional research project that aimed to find options for using green manure as a multifunctional tool in vegetable production. The project consisted of four work packages looking at different aspects of a system of interest defined by researchers. The PLAR group sought to evaluate the agronomic outcome of the conventional research outputs but came to add qualitative experience of using the different manuring methods tried. The article reports on the evaluation of the PLAR activities as well as on issues of cooperation and understanding The difficulties and constrains that arose revealed the limitations of conventional research as a means for supporting ecological horticulture transitions, but using PLAR as an ‘add on method’ is also shown to be inadequate for helping producers effect the transitions required. Discussion on the robustness of the data generated and the stability of the approach show the importance of using approaches that are fit for practice when extending research to develop ecological horticulture to include participation with practitioners. Moving from conventional research approaches to trans-disciplinary approaches is not easy and includes the need to relate the contextual knowledge of farmers to the abstract knowledge of scientists.

Organic food is the development trend of food in the world today. China's green food is a kind of food with pollution-free, safety, high-quality and nutritious properties, similar to organic food in the international market. The Chinese government has paid attention to the sustainable development of agro-ecosystems under the pressures of population growth and agricultural expansion since the 1980s and began to develop a green food industry in 1990. After the development of about two decades, now the Chinese green food industry has already entered a fast-growth stage. It has reached a considerable scale and is expanding rapidly. The share of green food in the global market is continuously increasing and a two-tier certification system has been established. However, green food's further development is still facing some difficulties and problems. This paper mainly analyzes those problems and discusses reasonable solutions. Specifically, this paper first gives a detailed introduction to green food and the green food industry in China, and then analyzes the major problems impeding the further development of green food industry, such as unreasonable product structure and enterprise structure, incomplete market system and backward certification system. Finally, suggestions on product structure, enterprise structure, publicity, market, certification system and governmental policies are put forward.