Index
Adjudicated Law model of CIL, 60
coherence and, 71
common law compared, 60
ECtHR and,
ICJ and, 69
interpretive path, 70
Legislated Law model of CIL compared, 72
overview, 53
Adler, Ruth, 266
aggression, prohibition as jus cogens,
Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA), 179
Alexy, Robert, 266
Ammoun, Fouad,
analogy,
anticipatory self-defence, 63
application of CIL, interpretation prior to, 20
arbitration,
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA)
case-by-case analysis, 154
control under,
factual context of rules, 142
judicial reasoning regarding threshold of control,
legal context of rules, 142
non-binding nature of,
overview, 130
statement of reasons for tribunal decision, 152,
state-owned enterprises and,
al-Bashir, Omar, , , 291
basic social entities,
Bodansky, Daniel, 18
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 91
Bos, Maarten, 189
Bossa, Solomy Balungi, 94
Broches, Aaron, 146
Brussels II Regulation,
chaotic systems, 82
chess, , 50
Choi, Stephen, ,
chronological paradox
CIL metarule and, , 47
constitutive rules and, 36
good faith principle and, ,
ILC and, 26
opinio juris and,
overview,
rejection of obligation element as possible solution, 30
risks of, 26
rule identification and, 31
CIL metarule
chronological paradox and, , 47
conditions,
as constitutive rule, 49
first explanation, , 49
good faith principle and,
is/ought gap, , 49
legitimate expectations and,
overview, 40
second explanation, ,
as unspoken behind-the-scenes rule, 50
Clausius, Rudolf, 90
coherence
Adjudicated Law model of CIL and, 71
defined, 300
ILC on, 301
as independent concept with own content,
indicators of, 300,
lack of scholarly attention to,
Legislated Law model of CIL and, 72
Negotiated Law model of CIL and,
self-defence and, 305
VCLT and, 301
collective acceptance,
command responsibility,
Committee against Torture, 226
‘communities of practice’,
complexity theory
complicatedness distinguished, 84
diversity of actors, , 88
dynamic complexity, 79,
judicial discretion and, 88
shared understanding of CIL and, 86
social system, CIL as, ,
two-level complexity in CIL, 88
constructive interpretation, , 97
constructive rules,
contextualisation,
defined, 320
head-of-state immunity and,
ICC and,
interpretation and, , 322
normative contextualisation and,
order and priority, imposing, 325
systemic contextualisation and,
control
under ARSIWA,
case-by-case analysis, 136,
Contras and,
hybrid control tests, 141
international investment, control tests in,
interpretation of, 132
judicial reasoning regarding threshold of control, 143,
lower thresholds for control,
statement of reasons for tribunal decision, 152,
state-owned enterprises, control tests, 132, , ,
Convention on the Continental Shelf (1958), 265
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982), 114
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention) (1965), , 148, 152, 314
Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
Advocates General,
boundaries of EU law and, 162
determination of CIL in, 122
as domestic court, 184
erga omnes obligations and, 166
EU institutions and, 162
EU law, interpretation of, ,
ICJ rulings, reliance on,
identification of CIL in, 176
importance of CIL in,
indispensable parties principle in,
interpretation of CIL generally, , , , 185
‘mirroring’ of CIL norms, 178
‘multiplying’ effect in, 166
natural resources, state sovereignty over, , 183
obligation not to defeat object and purpose of treaties and, , 182
PCIJ rulings, reliance on,
reluctance to analyse CIL,
‘re-packaging’ of CIL norms, 178
resources of, 184
self-determination and, , 183
‘snowball’ effect in, 166
state immunity from jurisdiction and, ,
territorial scope of treaties and, , 182
two-pronged test for interpretation, 183
crimes against humanity
ICTR and, 95
individual criminal responsibility for, 289
inhumane acts as, 95
jus cogens, prohibition as,
systemic interpretation and,
customary rules
acceptance of,
applicability of, 38
application of, 38
constructive rules,
critical mass for creation of,
facts, emerging from,
general principles of law, interpretation by reference to, , 280
hierarchy of,
‘outer rules’, 47
system of rules as a whole, interpretation by reference to,
treaties, interpretation by reference to, , 280
cyberspace, 119
Daudet, Yves, 46
declaratory treaties, 269
deduction
from analogy,
defined, 108
in ICJ, 105, ,
in identification of CIL, 105, , ,
from legal principles,
normative deduction,
in PCIJ, 105
‘triangular reasoning’,
without resort to elements,
definitional concepts, , 12
demonstrable correctness,
descriptive interpretation,
determination of CIL
in CJEU, 122
foreign ministry determinations,
ICJ on, 122
identification distinguished, 106
by inference,
interpretation prior to, 20
judicial function and, 189
judicial process and, 189
UN General Assembly resolutions and,
deterministic chaos, 82
Dewey, John,
diplomatic immunity, 116
dolus eventualis, 278
domestic courts
CJEU as, 184
general principles of law originating in, 245,
head-of-state immunity in, 115
human rights law, role in, 232
due process,
Dworkin, Ronald,
dynamic complexity, 79,
dynamic interpretation, 159
Eboe-Osuji, Chile, 94
‘effective control’ test
Geneva Conventions and, 274
in ICJ, , , 141,
in ICTY, 134
international armed conflict and, 274
limitations of,
as standard of evaluation,
state-owned enterprises and, 138
entropic approach to interpretation
in ICC, 94,
in ICJ,
in ICTR, 95
in ICTY, 95
in international criminal courts, , 101
shared understanding of CIL and, 94
in Special Tribunal for Lebanon,
equilibrium, 92
erga omnes obligations
CIL norms as, 172
CJEU rulings and, 166
Geneva Conventions Common Article 3 and, 95
in human rights law, 234
ICJ and, 234
state sovereignty over natural resources as,
EU–China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment, 47
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
Adjudicated Law model of CIL and,
general principles of law in, 260
harmonisation through interpretation, 283
indispensable parties principle in,
provisional measures and, 225,
state policy, impact on, 100
systemic interpretation and,
exceptions,
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), , 278
fair and equitable treatment clauses, 74,
fairness,
falsification by facts,
Fitzmaurice, Gerald, 47,
foreign ministry determinations,
formal activism,
Forrester, Jay, 83
fragmentation
ILC on, 301
judicial dialogue as remedy for,
Legislated Law model of CIL and, 72
Negotiated Law model of CIL and, 56
framing,
goals, formulating, 318
order and priority, imposing, , 325
practice, identifying, 319
prima facie legal relevance and, 320
France, practical concordance in, 293
Gaja, Giorgio, 122
general principles of law
ascertainment of,
as category of rules, , 251
CIL compared,
courts and tribunals, role of, 241,
customary rules, interpretation by reference to general principles of law, , 280
disagreement regarding,
domestic courts, originating in, 245,
in ECtHR, 260
elements of crime and, 278
embeddedness with custom,
ICTY and, ,
identification of CIL contrasted to ascertainment of, 247
ILC on, , 276
international law, originating in, 245,
interpretation generally, 240,
overview, ,
PCIJ and, 276
as ‘relevant rules of international law’,
as secondary rules, 240
as source of rules of interpretation,
‘systemic officials’, role of, 241,
transposition of,
Geneva Conventions (1949)
Additional Protocols, 271,
Common Article 3, 95
‘effective control’ test and, 274
erga omnes obligations and, 95
torture prohibition as jus cogens and, 223
gold-digging metaphor, 5
good faith principle
chronological paradox and, ,
CIL metarule and,
legitimate expectations and,
opinio juris, as basis of,
in PCIJ, 45
Gorobets, Kostiantyn, 313
grammatical interpretation,
Grotian moment, 79
Grotius, Hugo., 44
Guillaume, Gilbert, , 271
Gulati, Mitu, ,
Hague Convention (1907), 116
Hanson, Norwood Russell, 7
head-of-state immunity
contextualisation and,
in domestic courts, 115
foreign ministers and,
ICJ and, , , 286
ICTR and, 286
ICTY and, 286
ILC on, 284
impunity and, , 284
individual criminal responsibility versus, , 284, , , ,
interpretation of,
practical concordance and,
rationale for, 284
shared understanding of CIL and, 94
shift from absolute to qualified immunity,
unease regarding, 288
VCLT and, 285
Helsinki Final Act, 174
Hesse, Konrad, 292
Hofmanski, Piotr, 94
Hollis, Duncan, 248
humanitarian intervention,
human rights law
domestic courts, role of, 232
erga omnes obligations in, 234
judicial dialogue, role of in identification and interpretation, 214,
jus cogens and,
provisional measures,
public international order and,
hypothetical inference, 128
ICJ Statute
CIL under, 27
indispensable parties principle as ‘embodied’ in, , 210
on interpretation,
on legitimate expectations,
two-element test for CIL, 52
identification of CIL
circularity of, 18
in CJEU, 176
deduction in, 105, , ,
determination distinguished, 106
general principles of law, contrasted to ascertainment of, 247
in ICJ, 106,
indispensable parties principle, 191
as ‘interconnected judicial operation’,
interpretation and, 32,
investigation of state practice and, 5
lack of precision in, 187
non-textual evidence, 34
opinio juris and,
in PCIJ, 111
state practice and,
textual evidence,
uncertainty regarding, 77
immunity, 63
impunity, head-of-state immunity and, , 284
indigenous peoples, 86
indispensable parties principle
ambiguity of, 199
application of, 191
application versus recognition, 208
in arbitration,
in CJEU,
consolidation of,
development of,
in ECtHR,
effect on absent state and,
as ‘embodied’ in ICJ Statute, , 210
expansion of,
in ICC, 206
in ICJ,
identification of, 191
judicial effectiveness and, 209
lack of relevance,
in other international tribunals,
public function,
temporal preconditions,
uncertainty in, 210
in WTO, 206
individual criminal responsibility
for crimes against humanity, 289
head-of-state immunity versus, , 284, , , ,
ICTY and, 290
ILC on,
Nuremberg Principles,
for piracy, 289
practical concordance and,
induction
within application of state practice and opinio juris elements,
criticism of,
defined,
problems with,
in Special Tribunal for Lebanon, 126
state practice and, 5
inference
determination of CIL by,
hypothetical inference, 128
predictive inference,
universal inference, 128
Institut de Droit International, 266
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), , 226
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) (1947),
international armed conflict, ‘effective control’ test and, 274
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Adjudicated Law model of CIL and, 69
analogy in,
CJEU reliance on rulings of,
deduction in, 105, ,
on determination of CIL, 122
‘effective control’ test, , , 141,
‘elementary considerations of humanity’ and, 113
entropic approach to interpretation in,
erga omnes obligations and, 234
head-of-state immunity and, , , 286
identification of CIL in, 106,
indispensable parties principle in,
induction in, ,
inference in, 128
interpretation in,
jurisdiction, 211
non-compliance with obligations and,
opinio juris in,
practical concordance in, 294,
provisional measures and, 225
state practice in,
systemic interpretation and, 266
on torture prohibition as jus cogens, 223
on treaties, , 273
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 174
International Criminal Court (ICC)
conflicting norms in, 282
contextualisation and,
entropic approach to interpretation in, 94,
gap-filling and,
indispensable parties principle in, 206
interpretation in, 94,
judicial discretion and, 88
war crimes and,
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
crimes against humanity and, 95
entropic approach to interpretation in, 95
head-of-state immunity and, 286
interpretation in, 95
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
crimes against humanity and, 95
‘effective control’ test and, 134
entropic approach to interpretation in, 95
gap-filling and,
general principles of law and, ,
head-of-state immunity and, 286
individual criminal responsibility and, 290
interpretation in, 95
state responsibility and,
systemic interpretation in, 272
on treaties,
international humanitarian law, nuclear weapons and, 271
international investment law
case-by-case analysis, 154
control tests in,
fair-and-equitable-treatment clauses, 74,
investment neutrality, 154
judicial reasoning regarding threshold of control, 143,
legal reasoning in, 313
most-favoured-nation clauses,
state-led investment activities, caution regarding,
international law
general principles of law originating in, 245,
harmonisation, role of judicial dialogue in,
judicial activism in context of,
judicial restraint in context of,
modern perception of, 188
‘relevant rules of international law’,
International Law Association (ILA), 111, ,
International Law Commission (ILC)
on ascertainment of general principles of law,
chronological paradox and, 26
on coherence, 301
Draft Articles on State Responsibility, ,
on fragmentation, 301
on general principles of law, , 276
on head-of-state immunity, 284
on individual criminal responsibility,
on interpretation, 35
legal reasoning and, 313
on non-state actors, 27
on opinio juris, ,
on state practice, ,
on state responsibility, 37
international organisations, role in interpretation, 157
International Tin Council, 110
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), 205
interpretation
in Adjudicated Law model of CIL, 70
of agreements, 68
application, prior to, 20
of arguments,
constructive interpretation, , 97
contextualisation and, , 322
of control, 132
of decisions, 70
defined, 264
descriptive interpretation,
determination, prior to, 20
dynamic interpretation, 159
evolutive function of, 94
of exceptions,
general principles of law generally, 240,
grammatical interpretation,
harmonisation through, 283
of head-of-state immunity,
in ICC, 94,
in ICJ,
ICJ Statute on,
in ICTR, 95
in ICTY, 95
identification of CIL and, 32,
ILC on, 35
as ‘interconnected judicial operation’,
in international criminal courts, 80,
international organisations, role of, 157
judicial activism and, 195
legal reasoning and,
in Legislated Law model of CIL, 68
legitimacy of, , 64
maxims of,
in Negotiated Law model of CIL,
norms of,
reflexivity and,
source of rules of, general principles of law as,
in Special Tribunal for Lebanon,
of state immunity from jurisdiction,
of text, , 21
treaties generally,
‘treaty focus’ of, 248
written versus unwritten rules,
is/ought gap, , 49
Israel, individual criminal responsibility in, 290
Jennings, Robert,
judicial activism
abstract principles, deriving legal reasoning from,
in context of international law,
defined,
formal activism,
interpretation and, 195
judicial effectiveness, relation to, 191
judicial restraint compared, 194,
legal reasoning and,
modification of law, 197
overview,
process or procedure, changing, 197
substantive activism,
will of parties and state consent, ruling against, 197
judicial dialogue
‘communities of practice’ and,
defined, 212
fragmentation, as remedy for,
harmonisation of international law, role in,
identification of human rights law, role in, 214,
as improving legal decisions, 230
interpretation of human rights law, role in, 214,
jurisprudential objectivism, impact on, 214,
normative contextualisation and,
overview, ,
provisional measures and,
systemic contextualisation and,
judicial discretion, 88
judicial effectiveness
elements of,
harmonisation and,
indispensable parties principle and, 209
judicial activism, relation to, 191
of judicial function,
overview, , 188
public versus private function, 192
rapprochement and,
role of judge in, 193
judicial function
determination of CIL and, 189
judicial process, determination of CIL and, 189
judicial restraint
abstract principles, deriving legal reasoning from,
in context of international law,
defined, 195
judicial activism compared, 194,
legal reasoning and,
jure gestionis, 167,
jure imperii, 167,
jurisprudential objectivism, 214,
Lachs, Manfred, 120
Law of the Sea Convention, 25
legal reasoning
action intended by,
defeasible nature of, 314
ILC and, 313
in international investment law, 313
interpretation and,
judicial activism and,
judicial restraint and,
as practical reasoning,
as purposive activity, 313
theoretical versus practical reasoning,
Legislated Law model of CIL, 57
Adjudicated Law model of CIL compared, 72
coherence and, 72
fragmentation and, 72
interpretive path, 68
modern custom and, 59
overview, 53
treaties and, 58
VCLT and, , 68
legitimate expectations,
Lerche, Peter, 293
Luhmann, Niklas, 83
MacCormick, Neil, 303
Mahoney, Paul,
Mallarmé, Stéphane, 77
marriage, 11
McDougal, Myres, 55
McLachlan, Campbell, 259
Mendelson, Maurice, 18
Mengozzi, Paolo, 168
Morrison, Howard, 94
most-favored nation clauses,
natural resources, state sovereignty over, , 183
Negotiated Law model of CIL, 57
coherence and,
forward-looking nature of, 66
fragmentation and, 56
interpretive path,
overview, 53
textual interpretation and, 66
traditional custom and, 56
traditional model, 59
Nicaragua, Contras in,
normative contextualisation,
normative deduction,
nuclear weapons, international humanitarian law and, 271
nullum crimen sine lege,
Nuremberg Principles,
Odermatt, Jed, 181
opinio juris
belief in obligation, 28
chronological paradox and,
circularity of, ,
as claims,
collective acceptance of,
conditions of,
as element of CIL,
evidence gathering, , 35
good faith principle as basis of,
habitual practice distinguished,
in ICJ,
identification of CIL and,
ILC on, ,
investigation of state practice, as starting point for, 6
as normative element of CIL, 4
obligation element,
in PCIJ,
plural form of, 22
prescriptive role of,
presumption of, 121
state practice as based in, , 16
usage distinguished,
Organization of American States (OAS), , 272
‘outer rules’, 47
Pair, Lara, 195
Parsons, Talcott, 83
Pellet, Alain, 122
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), 204
Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)
CJEU reliance on rulings of,
deduction in, 105
general principles of law and, 276
good faith principle in, 45
identification of CIL in, 111
opinio juris in,
state practice in,
Pescatore, Pierre, 194
practical concordance
as balancing of interests, 291,
broader picture, consideration of,
defined, 291
fundamental rights and,
head-of-state immunity and,
in ICJ, 294,
individual criminal responsibility and,
in international courts,
overview, , 298
proportionality and, 292
‘thinking outside the box’, 296
unequal legal norms, inapplicable to, 291
practical reasoning
challenging, 311
legal reasoning as,
plausibility and, 311
reconciling and prioritising in,
theoretical reasoning versus,
precedents,
predictive inference,
provisional measures,
racial discrimination, prohibition as jus cogens,
rape,
Rawls, John,
reflective equilibrium, 323
Ricoeur, Paul, 21
Roberts, Anthea Elizabeth, 5
Robinson, Patrick Lipton, 114
Rome Statute. See also International Criminal Court (ICC)
gap-filling and,
Legislated Law model of CIL and, 58
non-compliance with obligations,
war crimes and,
Rozakis, Christos, 221
rules of interpretation
candidates for,
general principles of law as source of,
overview,
VCLT and, 252,
Russell, Bertrand, 42
Schauer, Frederick, 13
sexual slavery, 11
Shahabuddeen, Mohamed, 201,
Shannon, Claude E,
shared understanding of CIL
complexity theory and, 86
entropic approach to interpretation and, 94
head-of-state immunity and, 94
humanitarian intervention and, 88
social ontology, , 38
social system, CIL as, ,
Société Nationale des Autoroutes du Maroc (Moroccan state-owned enterprise), 140
SODIGA (Spanish state-owned enterprise),
Sørenson, Max, 273
Special Court for Sierra Leone, 290
Special Tribunal for Lebanon
entropic approach to interpretation in,
induction in, 126
interpretation in,
state immunity from jurisdiction
in CJEU, ,
interpretation of,
jure gestionis and, 167,
jure imperii and, 167,
torture and,
state-owned enterprises
ARSIWA and,
attribution of conduct to state, 132, ,
control tests, 132, , ,
corporate plus effective control, 141
defined, 130
‘effective control’ test, 138
hybrid control tests, 141
international investment law, caution regarding in,
lower thresholds for control,
political risk and, 143
state practice
common law compared, 13
definitional concepts, 12
diuturnitas as, 27
as element of CIL,
evidence gathering, , 35
as fact element of CIL, 4
in ICJ,
identification of CIL and,
ILC on, ,
induction and, 5
opinio juris, as based in, , 16
in PCIJ,
presumption of, 121
treaties and, 270
state responsibility
applicability versus application of rule, 37
Draft Articles on State Responsibility (ILC), ,
ICTY and,
ILC on, 37
systemic interpretation and, , 280
statistical mechanics, entropy in,
Stockholm Declaration, 58
substantive activism,
Sudan, head-of-state immunity and, 94
Switzerland, practical concordance in, 293
Syria, air strikes in,
system dynamics, 83
systemic contextualisation,
systemic interpretation
in CJEU, 159,
crimes against humanity and,
ECtHR and,
ICJ and, 266
ICTY and, 272
normative conflict, resolving, , 280
state responsibility and, , 280
torture and, 272
treaties and, , 280
VCLT and, , 280
systems theory, 83
Szpunar, Maciej, 157
Tanaka, Kotaro, , 218
Tarski, Alfred, 47
Tassinis, Orfeas Chasapis., 65,
telos,
Templeman, Lord Sydney, 110
text
identification of CIL, textual evidence,
interpretation of, , 21
Negotiated Law model of CIL, textual interpretation and, 66
theoretical framework, law as, 9
thermodynamics, entropy in,
Thirlway, Hugh,
Tladi, Dire,
Tokyo Charter,
torture
CIL and, 25
Geneva Conventions and, 223
ICJ on, 223
jus cogens, prohibition as, 214, ,
state immunity from jurisdiction and,
systemic interpretation and, 272
treaties
customary rules, interpretation by reference to treaties, , 280
declaratory treaties, 269
elements of treaty interpretation, interpretation of CIL and, 270
ICJ on, , 273
ICTY on,
interpretation generally,
Legislated Law model of CIL and, 58
obligation not to defeat object and purpose of, , 182
provisions, interpretation of CIL and, 270
as running parallel with custom,
self-defence and,
state practice and, 270
systemic interpretation and, , 280
territorial scope of, , 182
travaux préparatoires, 269
‘treaty focus’ of interpretation, 248
Treaty on European Union (TEU), 156
‘triangular reasoning’,
Trindade, Antônio Augusto Cançado, 277
Truman, Harry,
Türmen, Riza, 227
two-level complexity, 88
Tzekvelos, Vassilis, 265
uncertainty
content of rules, regarding, 77
identification of CIL, regarding, 77
in indispensable parties principle, 210
unpredictability and, 78
United Kingdom, humanitarian intervention and,
United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), 152,
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD),
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 114
Declaration on Friendly Relations, 58
General Assembly resolutions,
Human Rights Committee, , , 226
Resolution on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States, 173
Security Council, 282
universal inference, 128
usage, opinio juris distinguished,
vaccine donation, 29,
Verdross, Alfred, 266
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT)
capacity to bind states under,
coherence and, 301
head-of-state immunity and, 285
jus cogens and, 216
Legislated Law model of CIL and, , 68
obligation not to defeat object and purpose of treaties and, , 182
provisional measures and, 225
rules of interpretation and, 252,
systemic interpretation and, , 280
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