Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-mggfc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-17T17:55:06.202Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 1 - The Role of Family Functioning in Refugee Child and Adult Mental Health

from Part I - Refugee Family Relationships

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 August 2020

By
Matthew Hodes  and
Nasima Hussain
Edited by
Lucia De Haene  and
Cécile Rousseau
Lucia De Haene
Affiliation:
University of Leuven, Belgium
Cécile Rousseau
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montréal
Get access

Summary

Refugees experience adversities and changes in their lives that profoundly impact family life. Family values and relationships may influence how those events are experienced and the ability of family members to cope with them. The frequent consequences of violence exposure and war events, displacement and resettlement include significant losses and disruptions to relationships and family and community life. Such experiences are associated with a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders, especially PTSD and depression. The stressors may strain family relations and result in insecure infant-parent attachment and family conflict. The process of migration and resettlement may also provide opportunities for assimilation into a safer and more affluent society and enable changes in family relationships, with opportunities for new, rewarding roles for some family members but for others occupational and status decline and low morale. Over time, refugees’ mental health and social adaptation improves. Refugees show significant resilience - most cope well even when faced with harrowing adversities - but this is more likely in the presence of confiding and supportive family relationships.

Keywords

refugeesasylum seekersfamily functioningmental healthPTSDdepressionattachmentresettlementstressors
Type
Chapter
Information
Working with Refugee Families
Trauma and Exile in Family Relationships
 , pp. 17 - 35
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Cummings, E. M., Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K. and Mondi, C. F., Developmental and social-ecological perspectives on children, political violence, and armed conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 29(1) (2017), 1–10.Google Scholar
Fazel, M., Reed, R. V., Panter-Brick, C. and Stein, A., Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in high-income countries: Risk and protective factors. The Lancet, 379(9812) (2012), 266–82.Google Scholar
Reed, R. V., Fazel, M., Jones, L., Panter-Brick, C. and Stein, A., Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in low-income and middle-income countries: Risk and protective factors. The Lancet, 379(9812) (2012), 250–65.Google Scholar
Priebe, S., Giacco, D. and El-Nagib, R., WHO Health Evidence Network Synthesis Report 47. Public Health Aspects of Mental Health Among Migrants and Refugees: A Review of the Evidence on Mental Health Care for Refugees, Asylum Seekers and Irregular Migrants in the WHO European Region (Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2016).Google Scholar
Timshel, I., Montgomery, E. and Dalgaard, N. T., A systematic review of risk and protective factors associated with family related violence in refugee families. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70 (2017), 315–30.Google Scholar
Beiser, M., Hou, F., Hyman, I. and Tousignant, M., Poverty, family process, and the mental health of immigrant children in Canada. American Journal of Public Health, 92(2) (2002), 220–7.Google Scholar
Frounfelker, R. L., Assefa, M. T., Smith, E., Hussein, A. and Betancourt, T. S., ‘We would never forget who we are’: Resettlement, cultural negotiation, and family relationships among Somali Bantu refugees. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(11) (2017), 1387–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalgaard, N. T. and Montogomery, E., The transgenerational transmission of refugee trauma: Family functioning and children’s psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 13(3) (2016), 289–301.Google Scholar
De Haene, L., Grietens, H. and Verschueren, K., Adult attachment in the context of refugee traumatisation: The impact of organized violence and forced separation on parental states of mind regarding attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12(3) (2010), 249–64.Google Scholar
Montgomery, E., Tortured families: A coordinated management of meaning analysis. Family Process, 43(3) (2004), 349–71.Google Scholar
Rousseau, C. C., Rufagari, M. C., Bagilishya, D. and Measham, T., Remaking family life: Strategies for re-establishing continuity among Congolese refugees during the family reunification process. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 59(5) (2004), 1095–108.Google Scholar
Kevers, R., Rober, P. and De Haene, L., Unraveling the mobilization of memory in research with refugees. Qualitative Health Research, 28(4) (2018), 659–72.Google Scholar
van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., Jongmans, M. J., Mooren, T. T. and Out, D., Parental PTSD: Adverse parenting and child attachment in a refugee sample. Attachment & Human Development, 18(3) (2016), 273–91.Google Scholar
Weine, S., Feetham, S., Kulauzovic, Y., Knafl, K., Besic, S., Klebic, A. et al., A family beliefs framework for socially and culturally specific preventive interventions with refugee youths and families. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1) (2006), 1–9.Google Scholar
Weine, S. M., Raina, D., Zhubi, M., Delesi, M, Huseni, D., Feetham, S. et al., The TAFES multi-family group intervention for Kosovar refugees: A feasibility study. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191(2) (2003), 100–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parsons, T., The social structure of the family. In Anshen, R. N., ed., The Family: Its Functions and Destiny (New York: Harper & Row, 1959).Google Scholar
Parsons, T., The normal American family. In Farber, S. M., ed., Man and Civilization: The Family’s Search for Survival (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965).Google Scholar
Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Poltrock, S. and Baker, T., A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and rituals: Cause for celebration? Journal of Family Psychology (JFP) Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 16(4) (2002), 381–90.Google Scholar
Graybiel, A. M., Habits, rituals, and the evaluative brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 31 (2008), 359–87.Google Scholar
Falicov, C. J., Latino Families in Therapy (New York: Guildford Press, 1998).Google Scholar
Berry, J. W., Acculturation strategies and adaptation. In Lansford, J. E., Deater-Deckard, K. and Bornstein, M. C., eds., Immigrant Families in Contemporary Society (New York: Guilford Press, 2007), pp. 69–82.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L. and Szapocznik, J., Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. The American Psychologist, 65(4) (2010), 237–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, L., Constructing realities: An art of lenses. Family Process, 29(1) (1990), 1–12.Google Scholar
Walsh, F., Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process, 46 (2007), 207–27.Google Scholar
Kushner, T. and Knox, K., Refugees in an Age of Genocide (London: Frank Cass, 1999).Google Scholar
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
UNHCR, Guidelines on Policies and Procedures in Dealing with Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum (Geneva: UNHCR, 1997).Google Scholar
UNHCR, (2018). Figures at a glance. Geneva UNHCR. www.unhcr.org/uk/figures-at-a-glance.htmlGoogle Scholar
Eurostat, (2018). Asylum statistics. Eurostat. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_statisticsGoogle Scholar
DeJong, J., Sbeity, F., Schlecht, J., Harfouche, M., Yamout, R., Fouad, F. M. et al., Young lives disrupted: Gender and well-being among adolescent Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Conflict and Health, 11(Suppl. 1) (2017), 23.Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., Newnham, E. A., Birman, D., Lee, R., Ellis, B. H. and Layne, C. M., Comparing trauma exposure, mental health needs, and service utilization across clinical samples of refugee, immigrant, and US-origin children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(3) (2017), 209–18.Google Scholar
Cetorelli, V., Sasson, I., Shabila, N. and Burnham, G., Mortality and kidnapping estimates for the Yazidi population in the area of Mount Sinjar, Iraq, in August 2014: A retrospective household survey. PLoS Medicine, 14(5) (2017), e1002297.Google Scholar
Mokdad, A. H., Intentional injuries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, 1990–2015: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease 2015 study. International Journal of Public Health 63(1) (2017), 39–46.Google Scholar
Skjelsbaek, I., Sexual violence and war: Mapping out a complex relationship. European Journal of International Relations, 7(2) (2001), 211–37.Google Scholar
Clarke, G., Sack, W. H. and Goff, B., Three forms of stress in Cambodian adolescent refugees. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(1) (1993), 65–77.Google Scholar
Kinzie, J. D. and Sack, W., Severely traumatized Cambodian children: Research findings and clinical implications. In Ahearn, F. L. and Athey, J. L., eds., Refugee Children: Theory, Research, Services (Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), pp. 92–105.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch, (2018). World Report 2018: Eritrea, 18 January 2018, (accessed 26 October 2018). www.refworld.org/docid/5a61ee79c.htmlGoogle Scholar
Mollica, R. F., Healing Invisible Wounds (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
Goveas, J. and Coomarasamy, S., Why am I still here? The impact of survivor guilt on the mental health and settlement process of refugee youth. In Pashang, S., Khanlou, N. and Clarke, J., eds., Today’s Youth and Mental Health: Hope, Power, and Resilience (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018), pp. 101–17.Google Scholar
UNHCR, Desperate Journeys (Geneva: UNHCR, 2017).Google Scholar
Ben Farhat, J., Blanchet, K., Juul Bjertrup, P., Veizis, A., Perrin, C., Coulborn, R. M. et al., Syrian refugees in Greece: Experience with violence, mental health status, and access to information during the journey and while in Greece. BMC Medicine, 16(1) (2018), 40.Google Scholar
Migrants with mobiles. The Economist (2017). www.economist.com/international/2017/02/11/phones-are-now-indispensable-for-refugeesGoogle Scholar
UNHCR, Connecting Refugees (Geneva: UNHCR, 2016).Google Scholar
Crepet, A., Rita, F., Reid, A., Van den Boogaard, W., Deiana, P., Quaranta, G. et al., Mental health and trauma in asylum seekers landing in Sicily in 2015: A descriptive study of neglected invisible wounds. Conflict and Health, 11 (2017), 1.Google Scholar
Felsman, J. K., Leong, F. T., Johnson, M. C. and Felsman, I. C., Estimates of psychological distress among Vietnamese refugees: Adolescents, unaccompanied minors and young adults. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 31(11) (1990), 1251–6.Google Scholar
UNHCR, Global Report 2016 (Geneva: UNHCR, 2017).Google Scholar
Kirmayer, L. J., Refugees and forced migration: Hardening of the arteries in the global reign of insecurity. Transcultural Psychiatry, 44(3) (2007), 307–10.Google Scholar
Crepeau, F., Nakache, D. and Atak, I., International migration: Security concerns and human rights standards. Transcultural Psychiatry, 44(3) (2007), 311–37.Google Scholar
Anagnostopoulos, D. C., Giannakopoulos, G. and Christodoulou, N. G., The synergy of the refugee crisis and the financial crisis in Greece: Impact on mental health. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, (2017), 20764017700444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodes, M., Vasquez, M. M., Anagnostopoulos, D., Triantafyllou, K., Abdelhady, D., Weiss, K. et al., Refugees in Europe: National overviews from key countries with a special focus on child and adolescent mental health. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4) (2018), 389–99.Google Scholar
Lucassen, L., The refugee crisis in historical perspective. In ZentIM-Congress, Key Elements of Model Communities for Refugees and Immigrants: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (Essen: 21–23 June 2017). http://www.inzentim.de/wp-content/uploads/ftp/07-2017/Abstract_InZentIM-Tagung_Lucassen.pdfGoogle Scholar
Silove, D., Steel, Z. and Watters, C., Policies of deterrence and the mental health of asylum seekers. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(5) (2000), 604–11.Google Scholar
Australia RCo, Recent changes in Australian refugee policy (Surry Hills, NSW: Refugee Council of Australia, 2010). www.refugeecouncil.org.au/publications/recent-changes-australian-refugee-policy/Google Scholar
Fazel, M., Wheeler, J. and Danesh, J., Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: A systematic review. The Lancet, 365(9467) (2005), 1309–14.Google Scholar
Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A. and van Ommeren, M., Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 302(5) (2009), 537–49.Google Scholar
Bogic, M., Njoku, A. and Priebe, S., Long-term mental health of war-refugees: A systematic literature review. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 15 (2015), 29.Google Scholar
Murray Parkes, C., Stevenson-Hinde, J. and Marris, P., Attachment Across the Life Cycle (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1991).Google Scholar
Eisenbruch, M., Cross-cultural aspects of bereavement. I: A conceptual framework for comparative analysis. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 8(3) (1984), 283–309.Google Scholar
Hinton, D. E., Field, N. P., Nickerson, A., Bryant, R. A. and Simon, N., Dreams of the dead among Cambodian refugees: Frequency, phenomenology, and relationship to complicated grief and posttraumatic stress disorder. Death Studies, 37(8) (2013), 750–67.Google Scholar
Hinton, D. E., Peou, S., Joshi, S., Nickerson, A. and Simon, N. M., Normal grief and complicated bereavement among traumatized Cambodian refugees: Cultural context and the central role of dreams of the dead. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 37(3) (2013), 427–64.Google Scholar
Eisenbruch, M., From post-traumatic stress disorder to cultural bereavement: Diagnosis of southeast Asian refugees. Social Science and Medicine, 33(6) (1991), 673–80.Google Scholar
Hinton, D. E., Hinton, A. L., Pich, V., Loeum, J. R. and Pollack, M. H., Nightmares among Cambodian refugees: The breaching of concentric ontological security. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 33(2) (2009), 219–65.Google Scholar
Ventriglio, A. and Bhugra, D., Frozen bereavement. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 63(4) (2017), 285–6.Google Scholar
Ballard, J., Wieling, E. and Solheim, C., Immigrant and Refugee Families: Global Perspectives on Displacement and Resettlement Experiences (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing, 2016).Google Scholar
Hernandez, V., (2013). Painful search for Argentina’s disappeared. BBC News (updated March 24, 2013). www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-21884147Google Scholar
Stotz, S. J., Elbert, T., Muller, V. and Schauer, M., The relationship between trauma, shame, and guilt: Findings from a community-based study of refugee minors in Germany. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6 (2015), 25863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenbruch, M., The cultural bereavement interview: A new clinical research approach for refugees. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 13(4) (1990), 715–35.Google Scholar
Beiser, M. and Hou, F., Predictors of positive mental health among refugees: Results from Canada’s General Social Survey. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(5–6) (2017), 675–95.Google Scholar
Sack, W. H., Him, C. and Dickason, D., Twelve-year follow-up study of Khmer youths who suffered massive war trauma as children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(9) (1999), 1173–9.Google Scholar
Beiser, M. and Wickrama, K. A., Trauma, time and mental health: A study of temporal reintegration and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychological Medicine, 34(5) (2004), 899–910.Google Scholar
Beiser, M. and Hyman, I., Refugees’ time perspective and mental health. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(7) (1997), 996–1002.Google Scholar
Goosen, S., Kunst, A. E., Stronks, K., van Oostrum, I. E., Uitenbroek, D. G. and Kerkhof, A. J., Suicide death and hospital-treated suicidal behaviour in asylum seekers in the Netherlands: A national registry-based study. BMC Public Health, 11 (2011), 484.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Safe in our hands? A study of suicide and self-harm in asylum seekers. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 15(4) (2008), 235–44.Google Scholar
Hagaman, A. K., Sivilli, T. I., Ao, T., Blanton, C., Ellis, H., Lopes Cardozo, B. et al., An investigation into suicides among Bhutanese refugees resettled in the United States between 2008 and 2011. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 18(4) (2016), 819–27.Google Scholar
Montgomery, E., Refugee children from the Middle East. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine Supplementum, 54 (1998), 1–152.Google Scholar
Almqvist, K. and Brandell-Forsberg, M., Iranian refugee children in Sweden: Effects of organized violence and forced migration on preschool children. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(2) (1995), 225–37.Google Scholar
Lecompte, V., Miconi, D. and Rousseau, C., Challenges related to migration and child attachment: A pilot study with South Asian immigrant mother-child dyads. Attachment & Human Development, 20(2) (2017), 1–15.Google Scholar
Dalgaard, N. T., Todd, B. K., Daniel, S. I. and Montgomery, E., The transmission of trauma in refugee families: Associations between intra-family trauma communication style, children’s attachment security and psychosocial adjustment. Attachment & Human Development, 18(1) (2016), 69–89.Google Scholar
Bar-On, D., Eland, J., Kleber, R. J., Krell, R., Moore, Y., Sagi, A. et al., Multigenerational perspectives on coping with the Holocaust experience: An attachment perspective for understanding the developmental sequelae of trauma across generations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22(2) (1998), 315–38.Google Scholar
Bean, T., Derluyn, I., Eurelings-Bontekoe, E., Broekaert, E. and Spinhoven, P., Comparing psychological distress, traumatic stress reactions, and experiences of unaccompanied refugee minors with experiences of adolescents accompanied by parents. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(4) (2007), 288–97.Google Scholar
Woodhouse, S., Ayers, S. and Field, A. P., The relationship between adult attachment style and post-traumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 35 (2015), 103–17.Google Scholar
Silove, D., Momartin, S., Marnane, C., Steel, Z. and Manicavasagar, V., Adult separation anxiety disorder among war-affected Bosnian refugees: Comorbidity with PTSD and associations with dimensions of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(1) (2010), 169–72.Google Scholar
Almqvist, K. and Brandell-Forsberg, M., Refugee children in Sweden: Post-traumatic stress disorder in Iranian preschool children exposed to organized violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(4) (1997), 351–66.Google Scholar
Eruyar, S., Maltby, J. and Vostanis, P., Mental health problems of Syrian refugee children: The role of parental factors. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4) (2018), 401–9.Google Scholar
Thabet, A. A., Abu Tawahina, A., El Sarraj, E. and Vostanis, P., Exposure to war trauma and PTSD among parents and children in the Gaza strip. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17(4) (2008), 191–9.Google Scholar
Thabet, A. A., Ibraheem, A. N., Shivram, R., Winter, E. A. and Vostanis, P, Parenting support and PTSD in children of a war zone. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55(3) (2009), 226–37.Google Scholar
van Ee, E., Sleijpen, M., Kleber, R. J. and Jongmans, M. J., Father-involvement in a refugee sample: Relations between posttraumatic stress and caregiving. Family Process, 52(4) (2013), 723–35.Google Scholar
Sack, W. H., Clarke, G. N., Kinney, R., Belestos, G., Him, C. and Seeley, J., The Khmer Adolescent Project. II: Functional capacities in two generations of Cambodian refugees. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183(3) (1995), 177–81.Google Scholar
Morgan, G., Melluish, S. and Welham, A., Exploring the relationship between postmigratory stressors and mental health for asylum seekers and refused asylum seekers in the UK. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(5–6) (2017), 653–74.Google Scholar
Zwi, K., Mares, S., Nathanson, D., Tay, A. K. and Silove, D., The impact of detention on the social-emotional wellbeing of children seeking asylum: A comparison with community-based children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4) (2017), 411–22.Google Scholar
Kronick, R., Rousseau, C. and Cleveland, J., Refugee children’s sandplay narratives in immigration detention in Canada. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4) (2017), 423–37.Google Scholar
Mares, S., Fifteen years of detaining children who seek asylum in Australia: Evidence and consequences. Australasian Psychiatry, 24(1) (2016), 11–14.Google Scholar
Puthoopparambil, S. J., Bjerneld, M. and Kallestal, C., Quality of life among immigrants in Swedish immigration detention centres: A cross-sectional questionnaire study. Global Health Action, 8(1) (2015), 28321. DOI:http://10.3402/gha.v8.28321Google Scholar
Sen, P., Arugnanaseelan, J., Connell, E., Katona, C., Khan, A. A., Moran, P. et al., Mental health morbidity among people subject to immigration detention in the UK: A feasibility study. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 27(6) (2017), 1–10.Google Scholar
Gallagher, H. C., Richardson, J., Forbes, D., Harms, L., Gibbs, L., Alkemade, N. et al., Mental health following separation in a disaster: The role of attachment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 29(1) (2016), 56–64.Google Scholar
Hodes, M., Jagdev, D., Chandra, N. and Cunniff, A., Risk and resilience for psychological distress amongst unaccompanied asylum seeking adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(7) (2008), 723–32.Google Scholar
Bronstein, I., Montgomery, P. and Dobrowolski, S., PTSD in asylum-seeking male adolescents from Afghanistan. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(5) (2012), 551–7.Google Scholar
Jakobsen, M., Meyer DeMott, M. A., Wentzel-Larsen, T. and Heir, T., The impact of the asylum process on mental health: A longitudinal study of unaccompanied refugee minors in Norway. BMJ Open, 7(6) (2017), e015157.Google Scholar
Field, N. P., Muong, S. and Sochanvimean, V., Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83(4) (2013), 483–94.Google Scholar
Bezo, B. and Maggi, S., Living in ‘survival mode’: Intergenerational transmission of trauma from the Holodomor genocide of 1932–1933 in Ukraine. Social Science & Medicine, 2015(134) (1982), 87–94.Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H., Giladi, L. and Givati, T., Holocaust exposure and disordered eating: A study of multi-generational transmission. European Eating Disorders Review, 15(1) (2007), 50–7.Google Scholar
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Bierer, L. M., Bader, H. N., Klengel, T., Holsboer, F. et al., Holocaust exposure induced intergenerational effects on FKBP5 methylation. Biological Psychiatry, 80(5) (2016), 372–80.Google Scholar
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N P., Lehrner, A., Desarnaud, F., Bader, H. N., Makotkine, I. et al., Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in Holocaust survivor offspring. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(8) (2014), 872–80.Google Scholar
Lehrner, A., Bierer, L. M., Passarelli, V., Pratchett, L. C., Flory, J. D., Bader, H. N. et al., Maternal PTSD associates with greater glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring of Holocaust survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 40 (2014), 213–20.Google Scholar
Ekblad, S. and Jaranson, J. M., Psychosocial rehabilitation. In Wilson, J. P. and Drozdek, B., eds., Broken Spirits (New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2004), pp. 609–36.Google Scholar
Wright, A. M., Dhalimi, A., Lumley, M. A., Jamil, H., Pole, N., Arnetz, J. E. et al., Unemployment in Iraqi refugees: The interaction of pre and post-displacement trauma. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57(6) (2016), 564–70.Google Scholar
Tousignant, M., Habimana, E., Biron, C., Malo, C., Sidoli-LeBlanc, E. and Bendris, N., The Quebec Adolescent Refugee Project: Psychopathology and family variables in a sample from 35 nations. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(11) (1999), 1426–32.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Morgan, J., Rutter, M., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L. et al., Maternal expressed emotion predicts children’s antisocial behavior problems: Using monozygotic-twin differences to identify environmental effects on behavioral development. Developmental Psychology, 40(2) (2004), 149–61.Google Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Pawlby, S. J. and Caspi, A., Maternal depression and children’s antisocial behavior: Nature and nurture effects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(2) (2005), 173–81.Google Scholar
Mazza, J. R., Lambert, J., Zunzunegui, M. V., Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M. and Cote, S. M., Early adolescence behavior problems and timing of poverty during childhood: A comparison of lifecourse models. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 177 (2017), 35–42.Google Scholar
Smith, J. D., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., Wilson, M. N., Winter, C. C. and Patterson, G. R., Coercive family process and early-onset conduct problems from age 2 to school entry. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4 Pt 1) (2014), 917–32.Google Scholar
McGoldrick, M., Giordano, J. and Garcia-Preto, N., eds., Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford Press, 2006).Google Scholar
Berry, J. W., A psychology of immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3) (2001), 615–31.Google Scholar
Berry, J. W., Refugee adaptation in settlement countries: An overview with an emphasis on primary prevention. In Ahearn, F. L. and Athey, J. L., eds., Refugee Children (Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), pp. 20–38.Google Scholar
Bhatia, S. and Ram, A., Rethinking ‘acculturation’ in relation to diasporic cultures and postcolonial identities. Human Development, 44(1) (2001), 1–18.Google Scholar
Telzer, E. H., Expanding the acculturation gap-distress model: An integrative review of research. Human Development, 53(6) (2010), 313–40.Google Scholar
Walter, J. and Bala, J., Where meanings, sorrow, and hope have a resident permit: Treatment of families and children. In Wilson, J. P. and Drozdek, B., eds., Broken Spirits (New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2004), pp. 487–519.Google Scholar
Kastrup, M. C., Mental health consequences of war: Gender specific issues. World Psychiatry, 5(1) (2006), 33–4.Google Scholar
Hussain, D. and Bhushan, B., Posttraumatic stress and growth among Tibetan refugees: The mediating role of cognitive-emotional regulation strategies. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(7) (2011), 720–35.Google Scholar
Powell, S., Rosner, R., Butollo, W., Tedeschi, R. G. and Calhoun, L. G., Posttraumatic growth after war: A study with former refugees and displaced people in Sarajevo. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(1) (2003), 71–83.Google Scholar
Sleijpen, M., Haagen, J., Mooren, T. and Kleber, R. J., Growing from experience: An exploratory study of posttraumatic growth in adolescent refugees. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(S1) (2016), 28698.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×