Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T01:51:25.096Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Native and Exotic Distributions of Siamweed (Chromolaena odorata) Modeled Using the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Production

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Rafael Luís Galdini Raimundo ,
Rafael Luís Fonseca ,
Ricardo Schachetti-Pereira ,
A. Townsend Peterson  and
Thomas Michael Lewinsohn
Rafael Luís Galdini Raimundo
Affiliation:
Centro de Formação e Tecnologias da Floresta (CEFLORA), Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Educação Profissional, Avenida 25 de Agosto 2508, CEP 69880-000, Cruzeiro do Sul, AC, Brazil
Rafael Luís Fonseca
Affiliation:
Conservation International do Brasil, SAUS, Qd 3, Lt 2, Bl C, Ed. Business Point, 7° andar, Salas 713, 70070-934, Brasília, DF, Brasil, and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Agroecossistemas, ESALQ/USP, 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
Ricardo Schachetti-Pereira
Affiliation:
Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, University of Kansas, 12 Lawrence, KS 66045
A. Townsend Peterson
Affiliation:
Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, University of Kansas, 12 Lawrence, KS 66045
Thomas Michael Lewinsohn*
Affiliation:
Laboratório de Interações Inseto-Planta (LIIP), Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, CP 6109, CEP 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
*
Corresponding author's E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Siamweed is an asteraceous shrub native to the Neotropics that ranks among the world's most widespread and troublesome invasive species. It was introduced in several regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands, where it severely infests natural habitats and plantation crops. Although extensive data document the weed's abundance and distribution throughout the invaded continents, the details of its current range are not fully known, especially within its native region. In this study, we used point-occurrence data and digital maps summarizing relevant environmental parameters to generate predictions for the species' geographic distributional potential—specifically, we modeled the native range of siamweed in the Neotropics using the genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction, an evolutionary computing approach. The native range occurrence data set contained 239 published and herbarium records. Models were trained on a random subset of half the points and tested using the other half. The rule sets of the native-range models were projected onto the invaded continents to predict the weed's potential for invasion, blind to its known occurrences in such regions. Native-range models predicted a wide potential distribution of siamweed throughout tropical America, from southern United States to northern Argentina and southern Brazil. The weed's occurrence has been confirmed on the northern Pacific coast, in southeast Brazil, and in other South American areas, where it was supposed to be absent. Independent model projections to Africa, Asia, and Oceania are supported by known occurrence records. Four regions are predicted to be susceptible to siamweed spread: (1) Central Africa, currently being invaded from Western Africa; (2) Infestations spreading northward from South Africa, which have already reached Swaziland and Mozambique and may extend to East Africa and Madagascar; and (3) northern New Zealand and (4) Australia, which are at risk from uncontrolled infestations on several western Pacific islands.

Keywords

Siamweed, Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. EUPODGeographic rangeinvasive speciespredictive modeling
Type
Research Article
Information
Weed Science , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , February 2007 , pp. 41 - 48
Copyright
Copyright © Weed Science Society of America 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Literature Cited

Allen, E.A. and Humble, L.M. 2002. Nonindigenous species introductions: a threat to Canada's forests and forest economy. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 24:103–110.Google Scholar
Almeida, A.M., Fonseca, C.R., and Prado, P.I. et al. 2005. Diversidade e ocorrência de Asteraceae em cerrados de São Paulo. Biota Neotropica 5. http://www.biotaneotropica.org.br/v5n2/pt/abstract?article+BN00105022005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almeida, A.M., Fonseca, C.R., and Prado, P.I. et al. 2006. Assemblages of endophagous insects on Asteraceae in São Paulo cerrados. Neotrop. Entomol. 35:458–468.Google Scholar
Almeida-Neto, M. and Lewinsohn, T.M. 2004. Small-scale spatial autocorrelation and the interpretation of relationships between phenological parameters. J. Veg. Sci. 15:561–568.Google Scholar
Ambika, S.R. 2000. The influence of environmental factors on seedling growth in Chromolaena odorata . in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata, Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
Anderson, R.P., Laverde, M., and Peterson, A.T. 2002a. Geographical distributions of spiny pocket mice in South America: insights from predictive models. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 11:131–141.Google Scholar
Anderson, R.P., Laverde, M., and Peterson, A.T. 2002b. Using niche-based GIS modeling to test geographic predictions of competitive exclusion and competitive release in South American pocket mice. Oikos. 93:3–16.Google Scholar
Anderson, R.P., Lew, D., and Peterson, A.T. 2003. Evaluating predictive models of species' distributions: criteria for selecting optimal models. Ecol. Model. 162:211–232.Google Scholar
Aristiguieta, L. 1964. Compositae. in Lasser, T., ed. Flora de Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela Instituto Botánico, Dirección de Recursos Naturales Renovables.Google Scholar
Aterrado, E.D. and Talatala-Sanico, R.L. 1988. Status of Chromolaena odorata Research in the Philippines. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Bailey, R.G. 1995. Ecoregions of the Continents. Washington, DC U.S. Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Bani, G. and Le Gall, P. 1996. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and Robinson in the Congo. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., and de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata, Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Barreto, R.W. and Evans, H.C. 1994. The mycobiota of the weed Chromolaena odorata in southern Brazil with particular reference to fungal pathogens for biological control. Mycol. Res. 98:1107–1116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, F.D. and Rao, V.P. 1968. Distribution of an introduced weed Eupatorium odoratum L. in Asia and Africa and possibilities of its biological control. in Proceedings of the 9th British Commonwealth Forestry conference. Oxford, UK: Commonwealth Forestry Institute.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brosse, S., Giraudel, J.L., and Lek, S. 2001. Utilisation of nonsupervised neural networks and principal component analysis to study fish assemblages. Ecol. Model. 146:159–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chacko, M.J. and Uma-Narasimham, A. 1988. Biocontrol attempts against Chromolaena odorata in India—a review. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Cronk, Q.C.B. and Fuller, J.L. 2001. Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems. 2nd ed. London Earthscan Publications.Google Scholar
Cruttwell, R.E. 1972. The insects of Eupatorium odoratum L. in Trinidad and their potential as agents for biological control. . St. Augustine, Trinidad University of the West Indies.Google Scholar
Cruttwell, R.E. 1974. Insects and mites attacking Eupatorium odoratum in the Neotropics, 2: studies on the seed weevil Apion brunneonigrum B.B., and its potential use to control Eupatorium odoratum L. Tech. Bull. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control. 17:87–125.Google Scholar
D'Antonio, C.M. and Vitousek, P.M. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23:63–87.Google Scholar
Doddamani, M.B., Chetti, M.P., Koti, R.V., and Patil, S.A. 1998. Distribution of Chromolaena in different parts of Karnataka. in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
Esguerra, N.M. 1998. The Siam weed infestation in the Federate States of Micronesia – seven years of attempting to control it. in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
Esguerra, N.M. and Williams, W. 1991. Status of biological control of C. odorata (L.) R.M. King and H. Robinson on Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. in Muniappan, R. and Ferrar, P., eds. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Bogor, Indonesia BIOTROP Special Publications 44.Google Scholar
Esteves, R.L. 2001. O gênero Eupatorium S. L. no estado de São Paulo - Brasil. . Campinas, Brasil Unicamp (State University of Campinas).Google Scholar
Eswaran, H. 1988. Application of soil information in the study of the distribution of Chromolaena odorata . Chromolaena odorata Newsl. 2:3–4.Google Scholar
Feria, T.P. and Peterson, A.T. 2002. Using point occurrence data and inferential algorithms to predict local communities of birds. Divers. Distrib. 8:49–56.Google Scholar
Gautier, L. 1992. Taxonomy and distribution of a tropical weed: Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson. Candollea. 47:645–662.Google Scholar
Goodall, J.M. and Erasmus, D.J. 1996. Review of the status and integrated control of the invasive alien weed, Chromolaena odorata, in South Africa. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 56:151–164.Google Scholar
Gordon, D.R. 1998. Effects of invasive, non-indigenous plant species on ecosystem processes: lessons from Florida. Ecol. Appl. 8:975–989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guisan, A. and Zimmermann, N.E. 2000. Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecol. Model. 135:147–186.Google Scholar
Hobbs, R.J. and Mooney, H.A. 1986. Community changes following shrub invasion of grassland. Oecologia (Berl.) 70:508–513.Google Scholar
Hoevers, R. and M'Boob, S.S. 1996. The status of Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson in West and Central Africa. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., and de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata: Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Holland, J. 1975. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. Ann Arbor, MI The University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Hollowell, T., Funk, V.A., Kelloff, C.L., and Gharbarran, G. 2000. Smithsonian Plant Collections, Guyana: 1986–1987, John J. Pipoly III. Biodiversity of the Guianas. http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/pipoly/index.html. Accessed: September 10, 2003.Google Scholar
Holm, L.G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V., and Herberger, J.P. 1977. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. Honolulu, HI University Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Jiaxiang, K., Chongyi, K., Zianxing, H., Zivvei, Z., Fujin, Y., Wenrong, W., and Youbian, X. 1998. Establishment of mixed signalgrass (Brachiaria decumbens) pasture with legume species in southern Yunnan as a way to control Feijicao (Chromolaena odorata). in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
King, R.M. and Robinson, H. 1970. Studies in the Eupatorieae (Compositae), 24: the genus Chromolaena . Phytologia. 20:196–209.Google Scholar
Kubik, A. 2003. Toward a formalization of emergence. Artif. Life. 9:41–65.Google Scholar
Lek, S. and Guégan, J.F. 1999. Artificial neural networks as a tool in ecological modeling, an introduction. Ecol. Model. 120:65–73.Google Scholar
Leslie, A.J. and Spotila, J.R. 2001. Alien plant threatens Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) breeding in Lake St. Lucia, South Africa. Biol. Conserv. 98:347–355.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, T.M. 1991. Insects in flower heads of Asteraceae in Southeast Brazil: a case study on tropical species richness. Pages 525–560. in Price, P.W., Lewinsohn, T.M., Fernandes, G.W., and Benson, W.W. eds. Plant–Animal Interactions. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Lodge, D.M. 1993. Biological invasions: lessons for ecology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8:133–137.Google Scholar
Lonsdale, W.M. 1999. Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invasibility. Ecology. 80:1522–1536.Google Scholar
Loope, L.L., Sanchez, P.G., Tarr, P.W., Loope, W.L., and Anderson, R.L. 1988. Biological invasions of arid land nature reserves. Biol. Conserv. 44:95–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luken, J.O. and Thieret, J.W. 1997. Assessment and Management of Plant Invasions. New York Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
MacDonald, I.A.W., Graber, D.M., DeBenedetti, S., Groves, R.H., and Fuentes, E.R. 1988. Introduced species in nature reserves in Mediterranean-type climatic regions of the world. Biol. Conserv. 44:37–66.Google Scholar
Macdonald, I.M. 2002. Chromolaena at the cutting edge or why the battle to control Chromolaena is a flagship battle for the new millennium. Pages 66–70. in Zachariades, C., Muniappan, R., and Strathie, L.W. eds. Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Durban, South Africa, 23–25 October 2000. ARC-PPRI 2002.Google Scholar
Manel, S., Dias, J-M., and Ormerod, S.J. 1999. Comparing discriminant analysis, neural networks and logistic regression for predicting species distributions: a case study with a Himalayan river bird. Ecol. Model. 120:337–347.Google Scholar
Manly, B.F.J. 1997. Randomization, Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Methods in Biology, 2nd. ed. London Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Matzenbacher, N.I. 1979. Estudo taxonômico do gênero Eupatorium L.(Compositae) no Rio Grande do Sul. . Porto Alegre, Brazil Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul.Google Scholar
M'Boob, S.S. 1991. Preliminary results of a survey and assessment of Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) in Africa. in Muniappan, R. and Ferrar, P., eds. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Bogor, Indonesia BIOTROP Special Publications 44.Google Scholar
McFadyen, R.E.C. 1988. History and distribution of Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King and H. Robinson. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
McFadyen, R.E.C. 1989. Siam weed: a new threat to Australia's north. Plant Prot. Q. 4:3–7.Google Scholar
McFadyen, R.E.C. 1994. Country report for Australia and the Pacific: distribution, ecology and management of Chromolaena odorata . in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
McFadyen, R.E.C. 2002. Chromolaena in Asia and the Pacific: spreads continues but control prospects improves. Pages 13–18. in Zachariades, C., Muniappan, R., and Strathie, L.W. eds. Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata . Durban, South Africa, 23–25 October 2000. ARC-PPRI 2002.Google Scholar
McFadyen, R.E.C. and Skarrat, B. 1996. Potential distribution of Chromolaena odorata (siam weed) in Australia, Africa and Oceania. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 59:89–96.Google Scholar
McWilliam, M. 2000. A plague on your house? Some impacts of Chromolaena odorata on Timorese livelihoods. Hum. Ecol. 28:451–469.Google Scholar
Moder, W.W.D. 1996. Does the African pest grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus, need Chromolaena odorata?. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., and de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Moore, D. M., Lees, B.G., and Davey, S.M. 1991. A new method for predicting vegetation distributions using decision trees analysis in a geographic information system. Environ. Manag. 15:59–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muniappan, R. and Marutani, M. 1988. Ecology and distribution of Chromolaena odorata in Asia and the Pacific. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Napompeth, B. and Hai, N.T. 1988. Chromolaena odorata in Vietnam. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Napompeth, B., Hai, N.T., and Winotai, A. 1988. Attempts on biological control of siam weed in Thailand. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Napompeth, B. and Winotai, A. 1991. Progress on biological control of siam weed, Chromolaena odorata, in Thailand. in Muniappan, R. and Ferrar, P., eds. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata. Bogor, Indonesia BIOTROP Special Publications 44.Google Scholar
Noble, I.R. 1987. The role of expert systems in vegetation science. Vegetatio. 69:115–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ooi, P.A.C., Sim, C.H., and Tay, E.B. 1988. Irregular recovery of Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata in Sabah, Malaysia. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Orapa, W. 1998. The status of Chromolaena odorata in Papua New Guinea. in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
Pancho, J. and Plucknett, D. 1971. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson—a new record of a noxious weed in the Philippines. Philippines J. Anim. Sci. 8:143–149.Google Scholar
Peterson, A.T. 2001. Predicting species' geographic distributions based on ecological niche modeling. Condor. 103:599–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, A.T. and Cohoon, K.C. 1999. Sensitivity of distributional prediction algorithms to geographic data completeness. Ecol. Model. 117:159–164.Google Scholar
Peterson, A.T. and Vieglais, D.A. 2001. Predicting species invasions using ecological niche modeling. Bioscience. 51:363–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, A.T., Ball, L.G., and Cohoon, K.C. 2002a. Predicting distributions of tropical birds. Ibis. 144:e27–e32.Google Scholar
Peterson, A.T., Sánchez-Cordero, V., Beard, C.B., and Ramsey, J.M. 2002b. Ecologic niche modeling and potential reservoirs for Chagas disease, Mexico. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:662–667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, A.T., Soberón, J., and Sánchez-Cordero, V. 1999. Conservatism of ecological niches in evolutionary time. Science. 285:1265–1267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, A.T., Stockwell, D.R.B., and Kluza, D.A. 2002c. Distributional prediction based on ecological niche modeling of primary occurrence data. Pages 617–623. in Scott, J.M., Heglund, P.J., and Morrison, M.L. eds. Predicting Species Occurrences: Issues of Scale and Accuracy. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Pimentel, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R., and Morrison, D. 2000. Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. Bioscience. 50:53–65.Google Scholar
Prado, P.I. 2003. Levantamento, sistematização e análise de inventários de espécies no sul da Bahia. in Prado, P.I., Landau, E.C., Moura, R.T., Pinto, L.P.S., Fonseca, G.A.B., and Alger, K., eds. Corredores de Biodiversidade na Mata Atlântica do Sul da Bahia. CD-ROM. Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil IESB/CI/CABS/UFMG/UNICAMP.Google Scholar
Prado, P.I., Lewinsohn, T.M., Almeida, A.M., Norrbom, A.L., Buys, B.D., Macedo, A.C., and Lopes, M.B. 2002. The fauna of Tephritidae (Diptera) from capitula of Asteraceae in Brazil. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 104:1007–1028.Google Scholar
Renrun, W., Lu, X., and Zang, D. 1988. Distribution of two pernicious weeds, Ageratina adenophora and Chromolaena odorata, and biological control measures taken in Yunnan Province, China. in Muniappan, R., ed. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam.Google Scholar
Rouw, A.d.e. 1991. The invasion of Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson (ex Eupatorium odoratum), and competition with the native flora in a rain forest zone, south-west Cote d'Ivoire. J. Biogeogr. 18:13–23.Google Scholar
Schachetti-Pereira, R. 2002. Desktop GARP. University of Kansas Biodiversity Research Center. http://www.lifemapper.org/desktopgarp.Google Scholar
Spears, W.M. 1998. The role of mutation and recombination in evolutionary algorithms. . Fairfax, Virginia George Mason University.Google Scholar
Stockwell, D.R.B. and Noble, I.R. 1992. Induction of sets of rules from animal distribution data: a robust and informative method of data analysis. Math. Comput. Simul. 33:385–390.Google Scholar
Stockwell, D.R.B. and Peters, D.P. 1999. The GARP modeling system: problems and solutions to automated spatial prediction. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 13:143–158.Google Scholar
Stockwell, D.R.B., Davey, S.M., Davis, J.R., and Noble, I.R. 1990. Using induction of decision trees to predict greater glider density. AI Appl. Nat. Res. Manag. 4:33–43.Google Scholar
Stohlgren, T.J., Binkley, D., and Chong, G.W. et al. 1999. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol. Monogr. 69:25–46.Google Scholar
Timbilla, J.A. and Braimah, H. 1996. A survey of the introduction, distribution and spread of Chromolaena odorata in Ghana. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Tjitrosemito, S. 1998. Introduction of Procecidochares connexa (Diptera: Tephritidae) to Java Island to control Chromolaena odorata . in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October.Google Scholar
Tjitrosoedirdjo, S., Tjitrosoedirdjo, S., and Umaly, R.C. 1991. The status of Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson in Indonesia. in Muniappan, R. and Ferrar, P., eds. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Biological Control of Chromolaena odorata . Bogor, Indonesia BIOTROP Special Publications 44.Google Scholar
Usher, M.B., Kruger, F.J., MacDonald, I.A.W., Loope, L.L., and Brockie, R.R. 1988. The ecology of biological invasions into nature reserves—an introduction. Biol. Conserv. 44:1–8.Google Scholar
[US OTA] U.S. Office of Technology Assessment 1993. Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. Washington, DC Office of Technology Assessment, United States Congress.Google Scholar
Utulu, S.N. 1996. Controlling regrowths of Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson, using herbicide mixtures in young oil palm plantations in Nigeria. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., and de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993. Mangilao Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Vitousek, P.M., D'Antonio, C.M., Loope, L.L., Rejmanek, M., and Westbrooks, R. 1997. Introduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change. N. Z. J. Ecol. 21:1–16.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, B. 1998. Chromolaena odorata in Australia: progress in eradication of an established infestation. in Ferrar, P., Muniappan, R., and Jayanth, K.P., eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Bangalore, India, October 1996.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, B. and Zeimer, O. 2002. On the brink: status of Chromolaena odorata in Northern Australia. Pages 66–70. in Zachariades, C., Muniappan, R., and Strathie, L.W. eds. Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata . Durban, South Africa, 23–25 October 2000. ARC-PPRI 2002.Google Scholar
Weise, S.F. 1996. Distribution and significance of Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson across ecological zones in Cameroon. in Prasad, U.K., Muniappan, R., Ferrar, P., Aeschlimann, J.P., and de Foresta, H., eds. Distribution, Ecology and Management of Chromolaena odorata , Proceedings of the Third International Chromolaena Workshop, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, November 1993, Mangilao, Guam Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Guam Publication 202.Google Scholar
Yadav, A.S. and Tripathi, R.S. 1981. Population dynamics of the ruderal weed Eupatorium odoratum and its natural regulation. Oikos. 36:355–361.Google Scholar