Psychiatric diagnoses are arranged in a rough hierarchy, generally regarded as a convention to enable patients with a wide range of symptoms to be allocated to single diagnostic categories. Foulds, on the basis of self-report questionnaire responses, claimed that patients with symptoms at the higher levels of this hierarchy not only may but characteristically do exhibit symptoms at all lower levels as well. Foulds’ hierarchy model was tested here, using PSE ratings from two large series of in-patients; at least 75 per cent fulfilled the requirements of the model, but up to 50 per cent of schizophrenic and manic patients failed to do so. Almost two-thirds of all patients with psychotic symptoms establishing them in one of the upper two classes of the hierarchy did not exhibit the neurotic symptoms they required lower in the hierarchy.

In the 12 months from July 1977 to June 1978, out of 168 papers in the British Journal of Psychiatry, 139 (83 per cent) presented numerical results. A total of 63 papers contained statistical errors and at least one drew unsupportable conclusions. In many cases the errors were not considered to be severe, but they were often sufficient to raise doubts about some inferences. It is suggested that more consultation of investigators with medical statisticians, a basic training in statistical methods in the preclinical years, and more extensive statistical refereeing are needed.

Recent studies have suggested that psychosocial factors play an important part in the prediction of the course of minor psychiatric disorders. Fifty-nine new psychiatric out-patients suffering from minor disorders were assessed, using standardized clinical and social interviews, and 52 were followed up after one year and the clinical assessment repeated. Social and clinical factors were equally important predictors of the number of months ill in the survey year, but social and constitutional variables were superior in the prediction of percentage change in symptoms over the year.

The results of correlation, factor and multiple regression analyses suggest that the course of minor psychiatric disorder is best predicted by three sets of variables which are, in order of importance, the patient's material social circumstances, his clinical symptoms and his ‘genetic risk’ scores.

Cases of schizophrenia and schizophreniform attacks living in extended families have been compared to cases with similar diagnoses in nuclear families. Both diagnostic groups living in extended families presented earlier; they had lower rates of withdrawal symptoms and higher rates of behavioural disturbances and subjective suffering. Inter-generational conflict was a significantly more common precipitating factor in patients living in extended families; this was therapeutically utilized to induce family support. Patients from extended families had a lower tendency to deteriorate into withdrawn, affectively blunted residual states.

The enquiry relates to the investigation of 30 cases of obsessive-compulsive neurosis with special reference to the phenomena of hostility and guilt as revealed through Foulds' Five Punitive Scales and the Thematic Apperception Test. Controls consisted of an equal number of subjects suffering from neurotic depression. Analysis reveals acting-out hostility and extrapunitive tendency in the experimental group. No significant difference was found in terms of guilt scores.

A model for differentiating cerebral dysfunction in senile, arteriosclerotic dementia, and depressive states is proposed on the basis of electrocortical topographic measures of EEG coherence. Bipolar EEGs were recorded from central, parietal, occipital and temporal areas in 24 elderly patients with a firm clinical diagnosis of senile dementia, senile arteriosclerosis or depression. Power and coherence spectra were computed on 20 second epochs recorded during eyes open, eyes closed and photic stimulation. Significant group differences were reported in both power and coherence measures. Power results were uniform for all channels but coherence values differed significantly with derivation. The best discriminator between groups was EEG coherence estimates between right parietal and temporal derivation. Correlations between clinical symptomatology and EEG coherence supported the direction of the discrimination between groups. The EEG coherence function is discussed as a potential measure of neuro-functional pathology in psychiatry.

In two randomized double-blind controlled trials on 63 depressed female in-patients subject to recurrent affective disorder (bipolar and unipolar manic-depressive psychosis) lithium was shown to have major acute antidepressant effects. At the end of three weeks lithium produced more uniform improvement than did imipramine; lithium in combination with tryptophan (in the form of Optimax) was superior to tryptophan alone—the latter drug having no discernible antidepressant activity in this group of patients.

Lithium did not produce an antidepressant effect until the second and third week of both trials.

Apomorphine, a direct-acting dopamine agonist, stimulates release of growth hormone (hGH) and suppresses release of prolactin (PRL) from the anterior pituitary. Previous studies comparing the magnitude of these responses in schizophrenics and controls suggest that many acute (and some chronic) schizophrenics have exaggerated hGH responses; many chronic schizophrenics (and patients with tardive dyskinesia) have blunted hGH responses to apomorphine, and possibly blunted PRL responses. The present studies extend and confirm these findings in chronic schizophrenics; in addition, several studies were undertaken to further characterize these apomorphine-induced endocrine responses. Studies in which apomorphine was given on 2 or 3 separate occasions to each of five subjects indicate that the hGH response is a highly reproducible individual index, but PRL suppression is a less satisfactory measure. hGH responses to apomorphine were consistently antagonized by pretreatment with haloperidol, supporting the concept that the hGH-releasing effect of apomorphine is mediated by its action on dopamine receptors. Cyproheptadine pretreatment was associated with erratic increases or decreases in the hGH response to apomorphine, but did not alter PRL levels or apomorphine-induced PRL suppression. The relationship of these findings to biological hypotheses of schizophrenia and to neuroleptic-induced receptor changes is discussed.

Small but statistically significant increases in serum total calcium and serum inorganic phosphorus coincided with repeated onsets of psychotic agitation or mania in nine psychotic in-patients experiencing rapid cycles of illness. These increases were not accompanied by changes in magnesium or other constituents, which might suggest non-specific haemoconcentration. Similar increases in calcium or phosphorus were not present in patients without the same cycles of psychotic illness. The observed increases could neither be simulated nor altered by stress or activity, and it remains unclear whether they might be accounted for by dietary changes, sleep disruption, circadian phase shifts or by endocrine alterations.

An interview schedule was used to record the personality traits of 130 psychiatric patients, 65 with a primary clinical diagnosis of personality disorder and 65 with other diagnoses. The results were analysed by factor analysis and three types of cluster analysis. Factor analysis showed a similar structure of personality variables in both groups of patients, supporting the notion that personality disorders differ only in degree from the personalities of other psychiatric patients. Cluster analysis revealed five discrete categories; sociopathic, passive-dependent, anankastic, schizoid and a non-personality-disordered group. Of all the personality-disordered patients 63 per cent fell into the passive-dependent or sociopathic category. The results suggest that the current classification of personality disorder could be simplified.

A study was carried out to compare the antecedent factors, phenomenology, treatment required and prognosis in 30 cases of Reactive Psychosis and 30 cases of Acute Psychosis without antecedent stress, matched on age and sex. Both groups were followed up for 7 months.

It was found that the two groups differed markedly on several dimensions: The Reactive Psychotics had more hysterical and affective features, more vulnerable personality, higher stress experience in their life prior to illness and relatively better prognosis compared to the Acute Psychotics. The difference still remained when those in either of the groups who at the end of the follow-up turned out to be schizophrenics or suffering from affective disorder were excluded from analysis.

In an in-patient population in Sri Lanka, only those receiving a diagnosis of schizophrenia had Schneider's First Rank Symptoms. Among 65 males and 104 females, the prevalence of FRS was 25.4 per cent. Those patients with FRS in the first episode are likely to develop more during subsequent episodes. An attempt is made to explain the findings on a cultural basis.

With the aim of aiding primary prevention of parasuicide by Samaritans, a study of 325 parasuicide patients admitted to hospital was undertaken to discover the extent of knowledge about Samaritans, the proportion of patients who had contacted Samaritans and the reasons why the remainder had not done so. Ignorance about Samaritans was found in 28 per cent, such ignorance being significantly more common among teenagers than in other age groups. Only 1.4 per cent had sought help from Samaritans immediately before the present parasuicidal act, though a further 13 per cent had contacted Samaritans previously. Suggestions are made for future public education programmes about Samaritans.

Nineteen patients with acute psychoses, the majority schizophrenics, were studied in the course of chlorpromazine (CPZ) treatment. Plasma levels of the drug, plasma prolactin (PRL), extrapyramidal side-effects (EPS) and changes in mental state were monitored weekly, as in our earlier study. The results confirm some of our previous findings: (a) plasma CPZ levels vary widely among patients and correlate poorly with daily doses of CPZ; (b) increased plasma PRL is associated with higher plasma CPZ levels and is more common among the patients who develop EPS; and (c) none of these three variables differ between groups of patients with good and poor treatment outcome. However we did not confirm our previous finding of a significant association between EPS and higher plasma CPZ, nor did we find that the ratio of CPZ-sulphoxide to CPZ differed between the improved patients and the rest.

One hundred and forty patients seen in a suburban walk-in walk-out clinic over a period of 30 days were studied. Twenty-eight (20 per cent) of them were found to be primarily psychiatrically disabled, 83 (59.3 per cent) primarily physically disabled and the diagnosis of the rest (20.7 per cent) was uncertain. The psychiatric patients were found to be suffering from anxiety and depressive states. Their sex, age, education, economic status, symptomatology and duration of the illness were analysed.

The findings suggest among other things that the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in the rural setting in Kenya is high and therefore calls for a proportionate provision of mental health care facilities. They also suggest that anxiety and depression in African patients are masked by somatic symptoms, often leading to unnecessary delays in diagnosis and management.

Motor activity, monitored by a wrist motion transducer, was related to serum CPK activity the following morning in a group of psychiatric in-patients. In 4 of 10 patients, studied for periods exceeding one week, total 24-hour activity was significantly correlated with morning serum CPK activity. Motor activity during the night was unrelated to serum CPK activity. In a larger group of 30 patients, studied for one or two-day periods, inter-individual differences in activity level were not related to serum CPK activity, although both sex and race were significantly related to variance between subjects in that activity.

Twenty-one patients with bipolar affective disorder (20 manic episodes, one depressive episode) during the postpartum period were evaluated. They were compared to an unselected group of women with bipolar histories, as well as to a matched control group. The postpartum group had significantly more Schneiderian symptoms and fewer recurrences of illness within the three-year period after the index admission. There was a notable trend toward postpartum patients having fewer affectively ill relatives than the controls. The practical significance of these findings with regards to lithium therapy is discussed, as is the theoretical significance in terms of heterogeneity of the bipolar syndrome.

The inter-situational, inter-rater and temporal reliability of a schedule for rating personality disorders is described. In an initial study with a simplified form of the schedule in patients from different wards of a psychiatric hospital inter-situational reliability between raters was higher for patients with personality disorders than with no personality disorder. Using the full schedule, inter-rater reliability, using audiotaped and separate interviews, and temporal reliability at interviews conducted a mean of 12.5 months apart all reached a satisfactory level, suggesting that the schedule may be a useful instrument for measuring deviant personality traits. The interview may be used with a subject or an informant but agreement between ratings made with informants and psychiatric patients during illness was low, and the schedule is not recommended for use with patients alone during acute episodes of illness.