Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T20:41:29.321Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Organization Despite Adversity

The Origins and Development of African American Fraternal Associations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2016

Theda Skocpol  and
Jennifer Lynn Oser
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

A prominent form of voluntary organization in the United States from the nineteenth century through the mid-twentieth century, fraternal associations are self-selecting brotherhoods and sisterhoods that provide mutual aid to members, enact group rituals, and engage in community service. Synthesizing primary and secondary evidence, this article documents that African Americans historically organized large numbers of translocal fraternal voluntary federations. Some black fraternal associations paralleled white groups, while others were distinctive to African Americans. In regions where blacks lived in significant numbers, African Americans often created more fraternal lodges per capita than whites; and women played a much more prominent role in African American fraternalism than they did in white fraternalism. Rivaling churches as community institutions, many black fraternal federations became active in struggles for equal civil rights.

Type
Articles
Information
Social Science History , Volume 28 , Issue 3: Special Issue: African American Fraternal Associations and the History of Civil Society in the United States , fall 2004 , pp. 367 - 437
Copyright
Copyright © Social Science History Association 2004 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abston, Emanuel J. (1998) “Catholicism and African Americans: A study of Claverism, 1909-1959.” Ph.D. diss., Florida State University.Google Scholar
AEAONMS, Inc. (2002) Web site for the Ancient Egyptian Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine. Available at www.aeaonms.org.Google Scholar
Almond, Gabriel, and Verba, Sidney (1963) The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
American Woodmen (1923) Program [of the]District Convention of the American Wood-men, Columbus, Ohio, July 16-20,1923. Columbus, OH: American Woodmen.Google Scholar
American Woodmen (1948) American Woodmen Bulletin 8(8): 1–29.Google Scholar
Gazette, Arkansas (1907) “Negro society incorporated.” 19 July, 7.Google Scholar
Atlanta Independent (1910) “Grand United Order of Odd Fellows in America, Jurisdiction of Georgia: The largest and most successful Negro order in the world.” 25 June, 7.Google Scholar
Atlanta Independent (1918) “The supreme circle of benevolence.” 21 December,7.Google Scholar
Babchuk, Nicholas, and Thompson, Ralph V. (1962)“The voluntary associations of Negroes.” American Sociological Review 27:647–55.Google Scholar
Beito, David (2000) From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1967. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Bethel, Elizabeth Rauh (1981) Promiseland: A Century of Life in a Negro Community. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Bigham, Darrel E. (1987) We Only Ask a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Brooks, Charles H. (1902) The Official History and Manual of the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows in America. Philadelphia, PA: Grand United Order of Odd Fellows.Google Scholar
Brown, Elsa Barkley (1989) “Womanist consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 14: 610–33.Google Scholar
Browning, James B. (1937) “The beginnings of insurance enterprise among Negroes.” Journal of Negro History 22:417–32.Google Scholar
Bryce, James (1895) The American Commonwealth. 3d ed., vol. 2. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Burrell, W. P., and Sr.Johnson, D. E., (1970 [1909])Twenty-Five Years History of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers, 1881-1905. Westport, CT: Negro Universities Press.Google Scholar
Bush, A. E., and Dorman, P. L. (1924) History of the Mosaic Templars of America—Its Founders and Officials. Little Rock, AR: Central Printing Co. Google Scholar
Carnes, Mark (1989) Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Chicago Commission on Race Relations (1921) The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Clawson, Mary Ann (1989) Constructing Brotherhood: Gender, Class, and Fraternalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cleveland Advocate (1918) “American Woodmen invade sixth city.” 29 June,8.Google Scholar
Cleveland Journal (1906) “Will lead to solution of difficulties—United Brothers of Friendship the society for success—Cleveland people honored—state meeting at Ripley re-elects J. E. Reed.” 18 August, 1.Google Scholar
Collier-Thomas, Bettye (1998) Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their Sermons, 1850-1979. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Costa, Dora L., and Kahn, Matthew E. (2003)“Civic engagement and community heterogeneity: An economist's perspective.” Perspectives on Politics 1: 103–11.Google Scholar
Dabney, W. P. (1927) Maggie L. Walker and the I. O. of Saint Luke: The Woman and Her Work. Cincinnati, OH: Dabney Publishing Co. Google Scholar
Daniels, John (1969 [1914]) In Freedom's Birthplace: A Study of the Boston Negroes. New York: Arno.Google Scholar
Daynes, Gary (2001) “Knights of Peter Claver,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland:297.Google Scholar
Dickerson, Charles Edward II, (1981) “The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks and the Improved Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks of the World: A comparative study of Euro-American and Afro-American secret societies.” Ph.D. diss.,University of Rochester.Google Scholar
Dickson, Moses (1924) Manual of the International Order of Twelve of Knights and Daughters of Tabor Containing General Laws, Regulations, Ceremonies, Drill, and Landmarks. 13th ed. Kansas City, MO: Taborian Publications Department.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1907) Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1996 [1899]) The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. New introduction by Elijah Anderson. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
DU Bois, W. E. B., ed. (1898) Some Efforts of American Negroes for Their Own Social Betterment. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press.Google Scholar
Duncan, Cynthia M. (2001) “Social capital in America's poor rural communities,” in Saegert, Susan, Phillip Thompson, J., and Warren, Mark R. (eds.) Social Capital and Poor Communities. New York: Russell Sage Foundation:60–86.Google Scholar
Elazar, Daniel J. (1966) American Federalism: A View from the States. New York: Crowell.Google Scholar
Ellison, John Malcus (1933) “Negro organizations and leadership in relation to rural life in Virginia.” Bulletin of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, No. 290 (May): 1–88.Google Scholar
Entz, Gary R. (2001) “United Transatlantic Society,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 676.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (1994) The Black Lodge in White America: “True Reformer” Browne and His Economic Strategy. Dayton, OH: Wright State University Press.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (1996) Temperance and Racism: John Bull,Johnny Reb, and the Good Templars. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (2001a) “Grand United Order of Odd Fellows,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 252–53.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (2001b) “Colored Knights of Pythias,”in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 167–69.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (2001c) “United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 665–66.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (2001d) “Independent Order of St.Luke,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 270–71.Google Scholar
Fahey, David M. (2001e) “Grand United Order of True Reformers,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 253–54.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. W. (1937) Fifty Million Brothers:A Panorama of American Lodges and Clubs. New York: Farrar and Rinehart.Google Scholar
Fox, Sherwood Dean (1952) “Voluntary associations and social structure.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.Google Scholar
Frazier, E. Franklin (1957a) Black Bourgeoisie. Glencoe, IL: Free Press Google Scholar
Frazier, E. Franklin (1957b) The Negro in the United States. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gamm, Gerald, and Putnam, Robert D. (1999) “The growth of voluntary associations in America.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29:511–57.Google Scholar
General Grand United Order of Brothers and Sisters of Love and Charity (1903) Constitution of the General Grand Tabernacle of the General Grand United Order of Brothers and Sisters of Love and Charity, of the United States and Great Republic of Liberia. New Orleans: Robinson and Carter Printers.Google Scholar
Gerber, David A. (1976) Black Ohio and the Color Line, 1860-1915. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Sr.Gibson, W. H., (1897) History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten. Louisville, KY: Bradley and Gilbert Co. Google Scholar
Giggie, John M. (2001) “Mosaic Templars of America,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland:346–47.Google Scholar
Gist, Noel P. (1940) “Secret societies: A cultural study of fraternalism in the United States.” University of Missouri Studies: A Quarterly of Research 15 (4): 1–184.Google Scholar
Grand United Order of Odd Fellows (1886) Report of the Third Biennial Meeting of the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows in America…held at Philadelphia, PA.,… October 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th 1886. Compiled by Holmes, H. L. and Watts, S. J. Philadelphia, PA: Grand United Order of Odd Fellows.Google Scholar
Grand United Order of Odd Fellows (1926) Official Souvenir Program and Directory, 23rd B. M. C. Grand United Order Odd Fellows, Baltimore, Maryland, September 13-18, 1926. Baltimore, MD: G. B. Maddox and Son. Google Scholar
Griggs, Sutton E. (1926) Triumph of the Simple Virtues; or, The Life Story of John L. Webb. Hot Springs, AR: Messenger Publishing Co. Google Scholar
Grimshaw, William H. (1969 [1903]) Official History of Freemasonry among the Colored People in North America. New York: Negro Universities Press.Google Scholar
Grossman, James R. (1989) Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hankins, Frank H. (1931) “Fraternal orders,” in Seligman, Edwin R. and Johnson, Alvin (eds.)Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol.6. New York: Macmillan: 423–25.Google Scholar
Jr.Harris, Robert L., (1979) “Early black benevolent societies, 1780-1830.” Massachusetts Review 20: 603–25.Google Scholar
Jr.Harris, Robert L. (1981) “Charleston's free Afro-American elite: The Brown Fellowship Society and the Humane Brotherhood.”South Carolina Historical Magazine 82:289–310.Google Scholar
Hick, George H. (1877) “Independent Order of Good Samaritans and Daughters of Samaria,” in Centennial Temperance Volume: A Memorial of the International Temperance Conference held in Philadelphia, June, 1876. New York: National Temperance Society and Publication House: 734–37.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks (1993) Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hill, Walter B. (1892) “The great American safety-valve.” Century Magazine 44, n.s.,22: 383–84.Google Scholar
Hornsby, Angela (2001) “Order of the Eastern Star,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.) Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland: 543–44.Google Scholar
Hunter, Tera W. (1997) To ’Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Independent Order of Good Samaritans (1907) Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Session of the State Grand Lodge, No. 10, I. O. of G. S. and D. of S. [Independent Order of Good Samaritans and Daughters of Samaria], held in Wilson, N.C., July 9th, 10th,and 11th 1907. Raleigh, NC: Edwards and Broughton Printing Co. Google Scholar
Independent Order of St. Luke (1927) Souvenir Programme Sixtieth Anniversary…The Independent Order of St. Luke, August 15-16-17-18, 1927, Richmond, Virginia. Special Collections, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.Google Scholar
International Order of Twelve (1912)Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Session of International Order of Twelve, Knights and Daughters of Tabor for the State of Illinois Jurisdiction. N.p.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Claude F. (1988) “Benevolent societies of New Orleans blacks during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.” Louisiana History 29:21–33.Google Scholar
Jones, Jacqueline (1985) Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Jones, John L. (1919) “The Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia,” in Richardson, Clement (ed.) The National Cyclopedia of the Colored Race. Vol. 1. Montgomery, AL: National Publishing Co.: 585–87.Google Scholar
Jones, M. Ashby (1938) “Religious, civic, and social forces in Georgia.” Report prepared for the Coordinating Committee of the Citizens' Fact Finding Movement, August. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State College.Google Scholar
Kauffman, Christopher J. (1982) Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus, 1882-1982. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Knights of Alpha and Ladies of Omega of the World (1911) Ritual, Subordinate Assembly of the Order of Knights of Alpha and Ladies of Omega of the World.… St. Paul, MN: Volkszeitung Co. Google Scholar
Knights of Pythias, Eastern and Western Hemispheres (1903) Official Ritual of the Fifth, or Heraldic, Rank of Past Chancellor, of Grand Lodge Degree, Knights of Pythias, Jurisdiction of Supreme Lodge Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: Gradison and Sons. Google Scholar
Kreusler, Lucy Felicia (1952) “The Grand United Order of Moses, Inc.: A case study of a social institution, its growth, and decline.” M.A. thesis, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Kuyk, Betty M. (1983) “The African derivation of black fraternal orders in the United States.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 25:559–92.Google Scholar
Lane, Roger (1991) William Dorsey's Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Layton, Azza (2000) International Politics and Civil Rights Politics in the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Levine, Daniel (1997) “A single standard of civilization: Black private social welfare institutions in the South,1880s-1920s.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 81: 1–26.Google Scholar
Light, Ivan H. (1972) Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mason, Vivian C., ed. (1952) Golden Jubilee Souvenir Year Book. Norfolk, VA: Grand Temple, Daughters of the Improved Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks of the World.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug (1982) Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McMillen, Neil R. (1989) Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Meier, August (1963) Negro Thought in America: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Mihelich, Dennis N. (1995) “The origins of the Prince Hall Mason Grand Lodge of Nebraska.” Nebraska History 76:10–21.Google Scholar
Mihelich, Dennis N. (1997) “World War I, the Great Migration, and the formation of the grand bodies of Prince Hall Masonry.”Nebraska History 78:28–39.Google Scholar
Mihelich, Dennis N. (1998) “Boom-Bust: Prince Hall Masonry in Nebraska during the 1920s.” Nebraska History 79: 74–84.Google Scholar
Mississippi Division of Tourism (2002) African-American Heritage Timeline, 1924. Available at www.visitmississippi.org.wha…an/african_am_heritage_timeline.htm, accessed August 2002.Google Scholar
Morgan, Joseph H. (1913) History of the Knights of Pythias, Supreme Jurisdiction of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, State of New Jersey. Nashville, TN: AME Sunday School Union.Google Scholar
Morris, Aldon D. (1984) The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Muraskin, William A. (1975) Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Myrdal, Gunnar (1964 [1944]) An American Dilemma. Vol. 2, The Negro Social Structure. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
National Grand United Order of Brothers and Sisters of Love and Charity (1898) Proceedings of the 26th Annual Session of the North Carolina Grand Tabernacle of the N. G. U. O. of B. & S. of Love and Charity… in the town of Wilmington, N.C., Sept. 27th and 28th, 1898. North Carolina History Room, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
National Grand United Order of Brothers and Sisters of Love and Charity (1921) Ritual of the National Grand United Order of Brothers and Sisters of Love and Charity in America. North Carolina History Room, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Nebraska Work Projects Administration (1940)The Negroes of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Woodruff Printing Co. Google Scholar
Odum, Howard W. (1910) Social and Mental Traits of the Negro: Research into Conditions of the Negro Race in Southern Towns: A Study in Race Traits, Tendencies, and Prospects. Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, vol. 37, no. 3. New York: AMS.Google Scholar
Olsen, Marvin E. (1970) “Social and political participation of blacks.” American Sociological Review 35: 682–97.Google Scholar
Orum, Anthony M. (1966) “A reappraisal of social and political participation of Negroes.” American Journal of Sociology 72:32–46.Google Scholar
Palmer, Edward Nelson (1944) “Negro secret societies.” Social Forces 23:207–12.Google Scholar
Patriotic Order Sons of America (1897) Official Souvenir of the Semi-Centennial Celebration of the Patriotic Order Sons of America, Reading, Penna., August 23-28, 1897. Reading, PA: Harner and Pengelly.Google Scholar
Pearson, W. G. (1919) “The Royal Knights of King David,” in Richardson, Clement (ed.) The National Cyclopedia of the Colored Race. Montgomery, AL: National Publishing Co.:588.Google Scholar
Perlman, Daniel (1971) “Organizations of the free Negro in New York City, 1800-1860.” Journal of Negro History 56:181–97.Google Scholar
Pollard, Leslie (1980) “Black beneficial societies and the Home for Aged and Infirm Colored Persons: A research note.” Phylon 41:230–34.Google Scholar
Powdermaker, Hortense (1939) After Freedom: A Cultural Study in the Deep South. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Preuss, Arthur R. (1924) A Dictionary of Secret and Other Societies. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. (1993) Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of Community in America. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Raboteau, Albert J. (1999) African American Religion. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rachleff, Peter (1989 [1984]) Black Labor in Richmond, 1865-1890. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Raper, Arthur F. (1968 [1936]) Preface to Peasantry: A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties. New York: Athenaeum.Google Scholar
Rice, Tom W., and Feldman, Jan L. (1997) “Civic culture and democracy from Europe to America.” Journal of Politics 59:1143–72.Google Scholar
Richardson, Clement, ed. (1919) The National Cyclopedia of the Colored Race. Vol. 1. Montgomery, AL: National Publishing Co. Google Scholar
Rubinow, I. M. (1969 [1913]) Social Insurance. New York: Arno.Google Scholar
Salvatore, Nick (1996) We All Got History: The Memory Books of Amos Webber. New York: Times Books/Random House.Google Scholar
Scheiner, S. M. (1965) Negro Mecca: A History of the Negro in New York City, 1865-1920. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Sr.Schlesinger, Arthur M., (1944) “Biography of a nation of joiners.” American Historical Review 50: 1–25.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Alvin J. (1980) Fraternal Organizations. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Associations.Vol. 3. Westport, CT: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Sharkansky, Ira (1969) “The utility of Elazar's political culture.” Polity 2:66–83.Google Scholar
Shrock, Joel (2001) “Improved Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks of the World,” in Mjagkij, Nina (ed.)Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. New York: Garland:267–68.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda (2003) Diminished Democracy:From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, Ganz, Marshall, and Munson, Ziad (2000)“A nation of organizers: The institutional origins of civic voluntarism in the United States.” American Political Science Review 94: 527–46.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, Munson, Ziad, Karch, Andrew, and Camp, Bayliss (2001) “Patriotic partnerships: Why great wars nourished American civic voluntarism,” in Katznelson, Ira and Shefter, Martin (eds.)Shaped by War and Trade: International Influences on American Political Development. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, with the assistance of Marshall Ganz, Ziad Munson, Bayliss Camp, Michele Swers, and Jennifer Oser (1999) “How Americans became civic,” in Skocpol, Theda and Fiorina, Morris P. (eds.)Civic Engagement in American Democracy. Washington, DC, and New York: Brookings Institution Press and Russell Sage Foundation:27–80.Google Scholar
Spear, Allan H. (1967) Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto: 1890-1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Stevens, Albert C. (1899) The Cyclopedia of Fraternities: A Compilation of Existing Authentic Information and the Results of Original Investigation as to the Origin, Derivation, Founders, Development, Aims, Emblems, Character, and Personnel of More Than Six Hundred Secret Societies in the United States. New York: Hamilton.Google Scholar
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1969 [1835-40])Democracy in America. Vols. 1-2. Edited by Mayer, J. P., translated by Lawrence, George. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor.Google Scholar
Jr.Trotter, Joe William, (1990) Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-1932. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Turner, Howard H. (1881) Turner's History of the Independent Order of Good Samaritans and Daughters of Samaria. Washington, DC: R. A. Waters.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, and Nie, Norman H. (1972)Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E. (1995) Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Voorhis, Harold V. B. (1960) Our Colored Brethren: The Story of Alpha Lodge of New Jersey. New York: Henry Emmerson.Google Scholar
Walker, Harry J. (1936) “Negro benevolent societies in New Orleans: A study of their structure, function, and membership.” Ph.D. diss., Fisk University.Google Scholar
Walker, Joel (1985) “The social welfare policies, strategies, and programs of black fraternal organizations in the northeast United States, 1896-1920.” D.S.W. diss.,Columbia University.Google Scholar
Jr.Walkes, Joseph A., (1993) History of the Shrine, 1893-1993: Ancient Egyptian Arabic Order Nobles of the Mystic Shrine,Inc., Prince Hall Affiliated, a Pillar of Black Society. Memphis, TN: Ancient Egyptian Arabic Order Nobles of the Mystic Shrine of North and South America and Its Jurisdictions, Inc. Google Scholar
Warner, Robert Austin (1940) New Haven Negroes: A Social History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Washington, Booker T. (1909) The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery. Vol.2. New York: Doubleday, Page, and Co. Google Scholar
Watkinson, James D. (1989) “William Washington Browne and the True Reformers of Richmond, Virginia.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 97:375–98.Google Scholar
Wesley, Charles H. (1955) History of the Improved Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks of the World, 1898-1954. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro History.Google Scholar
West Virginia History Center (2002) “Rusian Holmes McKoy” [Founder of Golden Rule Beneficial and Endowment Association].Available through the West Virginia Division of Culture and History Web site at www.wvculture.org/history/histamne/mckoy.html.Google Scholar
Williams, Ephie Augustus, Green, Smith Wendell, and Jones, Joseph Lawrence (1917) History and Manual of the Colored Knights of Pythias. Nashville, TN: National Baptist Publication Board.Google Scholar
Williams, Fannie Barrier (1905) “Social bonds in the ‘Black Belt’ of Chicago: Negro organizations and the new spirit pervading them.” Charities and the Commons 15 (7 October):40–44.Google Scholar
Woodson, Carter G. (1929) “Insurance business among Negroes.” Journal of Negro History 14: 202–26.Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1918) “Secret societies as factors in the social and economical life of the Negro,” in McCulloch, James E. (ed.) Democracy in Earnest. Washington, DC: Southern Sociological Congress.Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N., ed. (1913) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1914-15) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1918-19) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1921-22) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1925-26) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1931-32) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1941-46) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Work, Monroe N. (1952) Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Negro Year Book Co. Google Scholar
Wright, George C. (1985) Life behind a Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Yearwood, Lennox (1978) “National Afro-American organizations in urban communities.” Journal of Black Studies 8:423–38.Google Scholar