The acceptor stem of Escherichia coli tRNAAla, rGGGGCUA[bull ]rUAGCUCC (ALAwt), contains the main identity element for the correct aminoacylation by the alanyl tRNA synthetase. The presence of a G3[bull ]U70 wobble base pair is essential for the specificity of this reaction, but there is a debate whether direct minor-groove contact with the 2-amino group of G3 or a distortion of the acceptor stem induced by the wobble pair is the critical feature recognized by the synthetase. We here report the structure analysis of ALAwt at near-atomic resolution using twinned crystals. The crystal lattice is stabilized by a novel strontium binding motif between two cis-diolic O3′-terminal riboses. The two independent molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal show overall A-RNA geometry. A comparison with the crystal structure of the G3-C70 mutant of the acceptor stem (ALAC70) determined at 1.4 Å exhibits a modulation in ALAwt of helical twist and slide due to the wobble base pair, but no recognizable distortion of the helix fragment distant from the wobble base pair. We suggest that a highly conserved hydration pattern in both grooves around the G3[bull ]U70 wobble base pair may be functionally significant.

A 29-nt RNA catalyst successively forms the aminoacyl ester phe-RNA, and then peptidyl-RNA (phe-phe-RNA), given phenylalanine adenylate (phe-AMP) as substrate. Catalysis of two related reactions at similar rates supports the argument that RNA catalysts would evolve as groups with similar mechanisms. In particular, successive aminoacyl- and peptidyl-RNA synthesis by one RNA suggests that uncoded but RNA-catalyzed peptide synthesis would evolve before the synthesis of coded peptides.

Translocation of DNA or RNA is a ubiquitous phenomenon. One intricate translocation process is viral DNA packaging. During maturation, the lengthy genome of dsDNA viruses is translocated with remarkable velocity into a limited space within the procapsid. We have revealed that φ29 DNA packaging is accomplished by a mechanism similar to driving a bolt with a hex nut, which consists of six DNA-packaging pRNAs. Four bases in each of the two pRNA loops are involved in RNA/RNA interactions to form a hexagonal complex that gears the DNA translocating machine. Without considering the tertiary interaction, in some cases only two G/C pairs between the interacting loops could provide certain pRNAs with activity. When all four bases were paired, at least one G/C pair was required for DNA packaging. The maximum number of base pairings between the two loops to allow pRNA to retain wild-type activity was five, whereas the minimum number was five for one loop and three for the other. The findings were supported by phylogenetic analysis of seven pRNAs from different phages. A 75-base RNA segment, bases 23–97, was able to form dimer, to interlock into the hexamer, to compete with full-length pRNA for procapsid binding, and therefore to inhibit φ29 assembly in vitro. Our result suggests that segment 23–97 is a self-folded, independent domain involved in procapsid binding and RNA/RNA interaction in dimer and hexamer formation, whereas bases 1–22 and 98–120 are involved in DNA translocation but dispensable for RNA/RNA interaction. Therefore, this 75-base RNA could be a model for structural studies in RNA dimerization.

Binding of transfer RNA (tRNA) to the ribosome involves crucial tRNA–ribosomal RNA (rRNA) interactions. To better understand these interactions, U33-substituted yeast tRNAPhe anticodon stem and loop domains (ASLs) were used as probes of anticodon orientation on the ribosome. Orientation of the anticodon in the ribosomal P-site was assessed with a quantitative chemical footprinting method in which protection constants (Kp) quantify protection afforded to individual 16S rRNA P-site nucleosides by tRNA or synthetic ASLs. Chemical footprints of native yeast tRNAPhe, ASL-U33, as well as ASLs containing 3-methyluridine, cytidine, or deoxyuridine at position 33 (ASL-m3U33, ASL-C33, and ASL-dU33, respectively) were compared. Yeast tRNAPhe and the ASL-U33 protected individual 16S rRNA P-site nucleosides differentially. Ribosomal binding of yeast tRNAPhe enhanced protection of C1400, but the ASL-U33 and U33-substituted ASLs did not. Two residues, G926 and G1338 with Kps ≈ 50–60 nM, were afforded significantly greater protection by both yeast tRNAPhe and the ASL-U33 than other residues, such as A532, A794, C795, and A1339 (Kps ≈ 100–200 nM). In contrast, protections of G926 and G1338 were greatly and differentially reduced in quantitative footprints of U33-substituted ASLs as compared with that of the ASL-U33. ASL-m3U33 and ASL-C33 protected G530, A532, A794, C795, and A1339 as well as the ASL-U33. However, protection of G926 and G1338 (Kps between 70 and 340 nM) was significantly reduced in comparison to that of the ASL-U33 (43 and 61 nM, respectively). Though protections of all P-site nucleosides by ASL-dU33 were reduced as compared to that of the ASL-U33, a proportionally greater reduction of G926 and G1338 protections was observed (Kps = 242 and 347 nM, respectively). Thus, G926 and G1338 are important to efficient P-site binding of tRNA. More importantly, when tRNA is bound in the ribosomal P-site, G926 and G1338 of 16S rRNA and the invariant U33 of tRNA are positioned close to each other.

Defects in RNA-binding proteins have been implicated in human genetic disorders. However, efforts in understanding the functions of these proteins have been hampered by the inability to obtain their mRNA substrates. To identify cognate cellular mRNAs associated with an RNA-binding protein, we devised a strategy termed isolation of specific nucleic acids associated with proteins (SNAAP). The SNAAP technique allows isolation and subsequent identification of these mRNAs. To assess the validity of this approach, we utilized cellular mRNA and protein from K562 cells and αCP1, a protein implicated in α-globin mRNA stability, as a model system. Immobilization of an RNA-binding protein with the glutathione-S-transferase (GST) domain enables isolation of mRNA within an mRNP context and the identity of the bound mRNAs is determined by the differential display assay. The specificity of protein–RNA interactions was considerably enhanced when the interactions were carried out in the presence of cellular extract rather than purified components. Two of the mRNAs specifically bound by αCP1 were mRNAs encoding the transmembrane receptor protein, TAPA-1, and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit II enzyme, coxII. A specific poly(C)-sensitive complex formed on the TAPA-1 and coxII 3′ UTRs consistent with the binding of αCP1. Furthermore, direct binding of purified αCP proteins to these 3′ UTRs was demonstrated and the binding sites determined. These results support the feasibility of the SNAAP technique and suggest a broad applicability for the approach in identifying mRNA targets for clinically relevant RNA-binding proteins that will provide insights into their possible functions.

The U1A protein binds to a hairpin RNA and an internal-loop RNA with picomolar affinities. To probe the molecular basis of U1A binding, we performed state-of-the-art nanosecond molecular dynamics simulations on both complexes. The good agreement with experimental structures supports the protocols used in the simulations. We compare the dynamics, hydrogen-bonding occupancies, and interfacial flexibility of both complexes and also describe a rigid-body motion in the U1A–internal loop complex that is not observed in the U1A–hairpin simulation. We relate these observations to experimental mutational studies and highlight their significance in U1A binding affinity and specificity.

A model of functional elements critical for replication and infectivity of the potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) was proposed earlier: a thermodynamically metastable structure containing a specific hairpin (HP II) in the (−)-strand replication intermediate is essential for template activity during (+)-strand synthesis. We present here a detailed kinetic analysis on how PSTVd (−)-strands fold during synthesis by sequential folding into a variety of metastable structures that rearrange only slowly into the structure distribution of the thermodynamic equilibrium. Synthesis of PSTVd (−)-strands was performed by T7-RNA-polymerase; the rate of synthesis was varied by altering the concentration of nucleoside triphosphates to mimic the in vivo synthesis rate of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase II. With dependence on rate and duration of the synthesis, the structure distributions were analyzed by temperature-gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE). Metastable structures are generated preferentially at low transcription rates—similar to in vivo rates—or at short transcription times at higher rates. Higher transcription rates or longer transcription times lead to metastable structures in low or undetectable amounts. Instead different structures do gradually appear having a more rod-like shape and higher thermodynamic stability, and the thermodynamically optimal rod-like structure dominates finally. It is concluded that viroids are able to use metastable as well as stable structures for their biological functions.

SR (ser/arg) proteins have been shown to play roles in numerous aspects of pre-mRNA splicing, including modulation of alternative splicing, commitment of substrates to the splicing pathway, and splice site communication. The last of these, splice site communication, is particularly relevant to trans-splicing in which the 5′ and 3′ exons originate on separate molecules. The participation of SR proteins in naturally occurring, spliced leader RNA-dependent trans-splicing has not been examined. Here, we have isolated SR proteins from an organism that performs both trans- and cis-splicing, the nematode Ascaris lumbricoides. To examine their activity in in vitro splicing reactions, we have also developed and characterized an SR protein-depleted whole-cell extract. When tested in this extract, the nematode SR proteins are required for both trans- and cis-splicing. In addition, the state of phosphorylation of the nematode SR proteins is critical to their activity in vitro. Interestingly, mammalian (HeLa) and A. lumbricoides SR proteins exhibit equivalent activities in cis-splicing, while the nematode SR proteins are much more active in trans-splicing. Thus, it appears that SR proteins purified from an organism that naturally trans-splices its pre-mRNAs promote this reaction to a greater extent than do their mammalian counterparts.

Subcellular localization signals for several mRNAs are positioned in their 3′ untranslated regions (UTR). We have utilized the human α- and β-actin 3′ UTRs as signals for colocalizing hammerhead ribozymes with a lacZ target mRNA. Ribozyme and target genes containing matched or unmatched 3′ UTRs were cotransfected into 12-day-old chicken embryonic myoblast and fibroblast (CEMF) cultures and assayed by in situ hybridization (ISH) using a dual label, antibody sandwich procedure, and dual fluorescence microscopy to monitor intracellular colocalization. β-galactosidase localization in transfectants was visualized by incubation with X-gal and also quantitated by an o-nitrophenyl β-D-galactopyranoside (ONPG) assay. We found that the percentage of colocalization using the matched α- or β-actin 3′ UTR (α–α or β–β) was enhanced approximately threefold relative to unmatched 3′ UTRs. The increase in ribozyme-mediated inhibition of β-galactosidase activity observed when matched 3′ UTRs were used was consistent with the observed percentage of colocalization. These results represent the first direct demonstration that mRNA localization signals (zipcodes) can be utilized to enhance intracellular ribozyme efficacy.

In this study, we demonstrate the ability of the polypyrimidine tract binding protein PTB to function as a coordinator of splicing regulation for a trio of neuron-specific exons that are subject to developmental splicing changes in the rat cerebellum. Three neuron-specific exons that show positive regulation are derived from the GABAA receptor γ2 subunit 24 nucleotide exon, clathrin light chain B exon EN, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR1 subunit exon 5 pre-mRNAs. The functional activity of splicing repressor signals located in the 3′ splice site regions adjacent to the neural exons is shown using an alternative splicing switch assay, in which these short RNA sequences function in trans to switch splicing to the neural pathway in HeLa splicing reactions. Parallel UV crosslinking/competition assays demonstrate selective binding of PTB in comparison to substantially lower binding at adjacent, nonneural 3′ splice sites. Substantially lower PTB binding and splicing switch activity is also observed for the 3′ splice site of NMDA exon 21, which is subject to negative regulation in cerebellum tissue in the same time frame. In splicing active neural extracts, the balance of control shifts to positive regulation, and this shift correlates with a PTB status that is predominantly the neural form. In this context, the addition of recombinant PTB is sufficient to switch splicing to the nonneural pathway. The neural extracts also reveal specific binding of the CUG triplet repeat binding protein to a subset of regulatory 3′ splice site regions. These interactions may interfere with PTB function or modulate splicing levels in a substrate-specific manner within neural tissue. Together these results strengthen the evidence that PTB is a splicing regulator with multiple targets and demonstrate its ability to discriminate among neural and nonneural substrates. Thus, a variety of mechanisms that counterbalance the splicing repressor function of PTB in neural tissue are capable of mediating developmental splicing control. Altered expression of PTB isoforms during cerebellar development, as documented by Western blot analysis, is proposed to be a contributing mechanism.

The naturally occurring streptogramin B antibiotic, pristinamycin IA, which inhibits peptide elongation, can produce two modifications in 23S rRNA when bound to the Escherichia coli 70S ribosome and irradiated at 365 nm. Both drug-induced effects map to highly conserved nucleotides within the functionally important peptidyl transferase loop of 23S rRNA at positions m2A2503/Ψ2504 and G2061/A2062. The modification yields are influenced strongly, and differentially, by P-site-bound tRNA and strongly by some of the peptidyl transferase antibiotics tested, with chloramphenicol producing a shift in the latter modification to A2062/C2063. Pristinamycin IA can also produce a modification on binding to deproteinized, mature 23S rRNA, at position U2500/C2501. The same modification occurs on an ∼37-nt fragment, encompassing positions ∼2496–2532 of the peptidyl transferase loop that was excised from the mature rRNA using RNAse H. In contrast, no antibiotic-induced effects were observed on in vitro T7 transcripts of full-length 23S rRNA, domain V, or on a fragment extending from positions ∼2496–2566, which indicates that one or more posttranscriptional modifications within the sequence Cm-C-U-C-G-m2A-Ψ-G2505 are important for pristinamycin IA binding and/or the antibiotic-dependent modification of 23S rRNA.

Cytoplasmic tRNAs undergo posttranscriptional 5′ and 3′ end processing in the eukaryotic nucleus, and CCA (which forms the mature 3′ end of all tRNAs) must be added by tRNA nucleotidyl transferase before tRNA can be aminoacylated and utilized in translation. Eukaryotic 3′-tRNase can endonucleolytically remove a 3′ end trailer by cleaving on the 3′ side of the discriminator base (the unpaired nucleotide 3′ of the last base pair of the acceptor stem). This reaction proceeds despite a wide range in length and sequence of the 3′ end trailer, except that mature tRNA containing the 3′ terminal CCA is not a substrate for mouse 3′-tRNase (Nashimoto, 1997, Nucleic Acids Res 25:1148–1154). Herein, we extend this result with Drosophila and pig 3′-tRNase, using Drosophila melanogaster tRNAHis as substrate. Mature tRNA is thus prevented from recycling through 3′ end processing.

We also tested a series of tRNAs ending at the discriminator base (−), with one C added (+C), two Cs added (+CC), and CCA added (+CCA) as 3′-tRNase inhibitors. Inhibition was competitive with both Drosophila and pig 3′-tRNase. The product of the 3′-tRNase reaction (−) is a good 3′-tRNase inhibitor, with a KI approximately two times KM for the normal 3′-tRNase substrate. KI increases with each nucleotide added beyond the discriminator base, until when tRNA+CCA is used as inhibitor, KI is approximately forty times the substrate KM. The 3′-tRNase can thus remain free to process precursors with 3′ end trailers because it is barely inhibited by tRNA+CCA, ensuring that tRNA can progress to aminoacylation. The active site of 3′-tRNase may have evolved to make an especially poor fit with tRNA+CCA.

Like its homologs in higher eukaryotes, the U2 snRNA in Schizosaccharomyces pombe is transcribed by RNA polymerase II and is not polyadenylated. Instead, an RNA stem-loop structure located downstream of the U2 snRNA coding sequence and transcribed as part of a 3′ extended precursor serves as a signal for 3′-end formation. We have identified three mutants that have temperature-sensitive defects in U2 snRNA 3′-end formation. In these mutants, the synthesis of the major snRNAs is also affected and unprocessed rRNA precursors accumulate at the restrictive temperature. Two of these mutants contain the same G-to-A transition within the pac1 gene, whereas the third contains a lesion outside the pac1 locus, indicating that at least two genes are involved. The pac1+ gene is codominant with the mutant allele and can rescue the temperature-sensitive phenotype and the defects in snRNA and rRNA synthesis, if overexpressed. In vitro, Pac1p, an RNase III homolog, can cleave a synthetic U2 precursor within the signal for 3′-end formation, generating a product that is a few nucleotides longer than mature U2 snRNA. In addition, U2 precursors are cleaved and trimmed to the mature size in extracts made from wild-type S. pombe cells. However, extracts made from pac1 mutant cells are unable to do so unless they are supplemented with purified recombinant Pac1p. Thus, the 3′ end of S. pombe U2 snRNA is generated by a processing reaction that requires Pac1p and an additional component, and can be dissociated from transcription in vitro.

Bacteriophage φ6 has a double-stranded RNA genome composed of three linear segments, L, M, and S. The innermost particle in the virion of φ6, like in the other dsRNA viruses, is an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex, which carries out all the functions needed for the replication of the viral genome. Empty polymerase complexes can package the single-stranded copies of the viral genome segments, replicate the packaged segments into double-stranded form (minus strand synthesis), and then produce new plus strands (transcripts) from the double-stranded RNA templates. The three viral genomic segments contain unique packaging signals at their 5′ ends, and minus strand synthesis initiation is dependent on the sequence at the 3′ end. Here we have constructed chimeric segments that have the packaging signal from one segment and the minus strand synthesis initiation signal from another segment. Using purified recombinant polymerase complexes and single-stranded chimeric and original RNA segments, we have analyzed the packaging and replication regulation operating in in vitro conditions. We show that the 5′ end of the L genome segment in single-stranded form is needed to switch from the packaging to the minus strand synthesis and the same sequence is required in double-stranded form to switch on plus strand synthesis. In addition we have constructed deletions to the M segment to analyze the possible regulatory role of the internal noncoding area of this segment.

Internal initiation of translation is promoted by internal ribosome entry site (IRES) cis-acting elements. Using transcripts that correspond to the structural domains of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) IRES, we have identified RNA–RNA interactions between separated domains (1–2, 3, 4–5, or HH) of the IRES structure. All the assayed domains were able to interact with the full-length IRES as well as with domain 3, although to a different extent, with the most efficient interactions being those occurring between domains 3 and 4–5, and domains 3 and 1–2. RNA–RNA complexes were stable over 1 h of incubation at 37 °C, and depended on Mg2+ and RNA concentration. Neither the antisense domain 1–2 nor tRNA interacted with domain 3, providing experimental evidence of the specificity for the sense strand of the IRES sequence. Additionally, domain 1–2 did not interact with 4–5, leading to the suggestion that domain 3 acts as a scaffold structure where the other domains bind. The thermal disassociation profile of these complexes indicated different strength in these interactions. Whereas 50% of the complexes between domains 3 and 4–5 were destabilized at 45 °C, those formed by domain 1–2 and 3 required temperatures higher than 51 °C. Efficient self-dimerization of domains 3 and 4–5 was found in the absence of other transcripts. Formation of domain 3 homodimer competed with formation of heterocomplexes with other domains, and conversely, domain 3 homodimers were competed out by the presence of the other domains. RNA interactions were also observed at physiological concentrations of Mg2+ and K1+. The identification of the RNA–RNA complexes reported here provide direct experimental evidence of tertiary interactions within IRES elements.

Splicing factor SF1 contributes to the recognition of the 3′ splice site by interacting with U2AF65 and binding to the intron branch site during the formation of the early splicing complex E. These interactions and the essential functional domains of SF1 are highly conserved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We have isolated cDNAs encoding SF1 from Drosophila (Dm) and Caenorhabditis (Ce). The encoded proteins share the U2AF65 interaction domain, a hnRNP K homology domain, and one or two zinc knuckles required for RNA binding as well as Pro-rich C-terminal sequences with their yeast and mammalian counterparts. In contrast to SF1 in other species, DmSF1 and CeSF1 are characterized by an N-terminal region enriched in Ser, Arg, Lys, and Asp residues with homology to the RS domains of several splicing proteins. These domains mediate protein–protein or protein–RNA interactions, suggesting an additional role for DmSF1 and CeSF1 in pre-mRNA splicing. Human (Hs), fly, and worm SF1 interact equally well with HsU2AF65 or the Drosophila homolog DmU2AF50. Moreover, DmSF1 lacking its N terminus is functional in prespliceosome formation in a HeLa splicing system, emphasizing the conserved nature of interactions at an early step in spliceosome assembly. The Ce-SF1 gene is located in a polycistronic transcription unit downstream of the genes encoding U2AF35 (uaf-2) and a cyclophilin (cyp-13), implying the coordinate transcriptional regulation of these genes. Injection of double-stranded RNA into C. elegans results in embryonic lethality; thus, the SF1 gene is essential not only in yeast but also in at least one metazoan.

In yeast, the 5′ end of the mature 18S rRNA is generated by endonucleolytic cleavage at site A1, the position of which is specified by two distinct signals. An evolutionarily conserved sequence immediately upstream of the cleavage site has previously been shown to constitute one of these signals. We report here that a conserved stem-loop structure within the 5′ region of the 18S rRNA is recognized as a second positioning signal. Mutations predicted to either extend or destabilize the stem inhibited the normal positioning of site A1 from within the 18S rRNA sequence, as did substitution of the loop nucleotides. In addition, these mutations destabilized the mature 18S rRNA, indicating that recognition of the stem-loop structure is also required for 18S rRNA stability. Several mutations tested reduced the efficiency of pre-rRNA cleavage at site A1. There was, however, a poor correlation between the effects of the different mutations on the efficiency of cleavage and on the choice of cleavage site, indicating that these involve recognition of the stem-loop region by distinct factors. In contrast, the cleavages at sites A1 and A2 are coupled and the positioning signals appear to be similar, suggesting that both cleavages may be carried out by the same endonuclease.

Removal of introns from pre-mRNA is an essential step of gene expression. The splicing reaction is catalyzed in a large complex termed the spliceosome. Introns are recognized during the early steps of spliceosome assembly with the formation of commitment complexes. Intron recognition is mediated by the interaction of splicing factors with conserved sequences present in the pre-mRNA. BBP/SF1 participates in this recognition by interacting with the pre-mRNA branch point in both yeast and mammals. This protein, which is essential in yeast, also interacts with the U2AF65/Mud2 splicing factor. However, its precise role in splicing complex formation is still unclear. We have now analyzed the presence of BBP and Mud2 in yeast splicing complexes using supershift and coprecipitation assays. We found that BBP is present together with Mud2 in commitment complex 2 (CC2), but is not detectable in commitment complex 1 (CC1). Furthermore, genetic and biochemical depletion of BBP demonstrated that it is required for CC2 formation. In addition we observed that BBP and Mud2 are not detectable in pre-spliceosomes. These are the first commitment complex components that are shown to be released during or immediately after pre-spliceosome formation. Interestingly, depletion of BBP or disruption of MUD2 had no significant effect on pre-spliceosome formation and splicing in vitro but led to a transient accumulation of CC1. These observations support a model in which BBP and Mud2 are recycled during transition from CC2 to pre-spliceosome.

The G[bull ]U pair at the third position in the acceptor helix of Escherichia coli tRNAAla is critical for aminoacylation. The features that allow G[bull ]U recognition are likely to include direct interaction of alanyl-tRNA synthetase with distinctive atomic groups and indirect recognition of the structural and stability information encoded in the sequence of G[bull ]U and its immediate context. The present work investigates the thermodynamic stability and acceptor activity for a comprehensive set of variant RNAs with substitutions of the G[bull ]U pair of E. coli tRNAAla. The four RNAs with Watson–Crick substitutions had a lower acceptor activity and a higher stability relative to the G[bull ]U RNA. On the other hand, the RNAs with mispair substitutions had a lower stability, but either a higher or a lower acceptor activity. Thus, the entire set of variant RNAs does not exhibit a correlation between thermodynamic stability of the free, unbound tRNA and its acceptor activity. The substantial acceptor activity of tRNAs with particular mispair substitutions may be explained by their ability to assume the conformational preferences of alanyl–tRNA synthetase. Moreover, the G[bull ]U pair may provide a point of deformability for the substrate tRNA to adapt to the enzyme's active site.

Retrotransposons and retroviruses replicate by reverse transcription of an mRNA intermediate. Most retroelements initiate reverse transcription from a host-encoded tRNA primer. DNA synthesis typically extends from the 3′-OH of the acceptor stem, which is complementary to sequences on the retroelement mRNA (the primer binding site, PBS). However, for some retrotransposons, including the yeast Ty5 elements, sequences in the anticodon stem-loop of the initiator methionine tRNA (IMT) are complementary to the PBS. We took advantage of the genetic tractability of the yeast system to investigate the mechanism of Ty5 priming. We found that transposition frequencies decreased at least 800-fold for mutations in the Ty5 PBS that disrupt complementarity with the IMT. Similarly, transposition was reduced at least 200-fold for IMT mutations in the anticodon stem-loop. Base pairing between the Ty5 PBS and IMT is essential for transposition, as compensatory changes that restored base pairing between the two mutant RNAs restored transposition significantly. An analysis of 12 imt mutants with base changes outside of the region of complementarity failed to identify other tRNA residues important for transposition. In addition, assays carried out with heterologous IMTs from Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Arabidopsis thaliana indicated that residues outside of the anticodon stem-loop have at most a fivefold effect on transposition. Our genetic system should make it possible to further define the components required for priming and to understand the mechanism by which Ty5's novel primer is generated.