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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 August 2009
The Democratic Party platform adopted in Los Angeles, July 1960 promised:
To the non-Communist nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America: We shall create with you working partnerships, based on mutual respect and understanding.
In the Jeffersonian Tradition, we recognize and welcome the irresistible momentum of the world revolution of rising expectations for a better life. We shall identify American policy with its values and objectives.
To this end the new Democratic administration will revamp and refocus the objectives, emphasis, and allocation of our foreign assistance programs.
The proper purpose of these programs is not to buy gratitude or to recruit mercenaries, but to enable the peoples of these awakening, developing nations to make their own free choices.
As they achieve a sense of belonging, of dignity, and of justice, freedom will become meaningful for them, and therefore worth defending.
Where military assistance remains essential for the common defense, we shall see that the requirements are fully met. But as rapidly as security considerations permit, we will replace tanks with tractors, bombers with bulldozers, and tacticians with technicians.
* Sections of this paper were presented by the authors at the Fourth Annual Conference on Comparative Education, New York University, 1957. Since then separately and together the authors have revisited Asia and revised the paper.
1 The most recent biography of Adoniram Judson, To The Golden Shore, by Anderson, Courtney (Boston, 1956)Google Scholar, is a full, if somewhat anti-Burmese, study of this amazing man and his three wives. The Judsons set for themselves as their first task ‘language training.’ Adoniram subsequently authored the first and still used Dictionary (1826 and 1849, published posthumously in 1852). It is here suggested that their youthfulness among other things may have made it more difficult — in an Asian setting — to execute this, or any mission.
2 See Curti, Merle and Birr, Kendell, Prelude to Point Four (Madison, 1955); andGoogle ScholarThe Role of Voluntary Agencies in Technical Assistance, American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service (New York, 1953) and its Directory (1960)Google Scholar; and Harlan Cleveland (and others), The Overseas Americans (New York, 1960)Google Scholar.
3 From 1940–1945 Foreign Assistance Programs amounted to $41 billion. See Brown, W. A. Jr, and Opie, R., American Foreign Assistance (Washington, D.C., 1953), pp. 21–83Google Scholar. See also Wolf, Charles Jr, Foreign Aid: Theory and Practice in Southern Asia (Princeton, 1960)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 For reviews of bilateral and multilateral aid programs, see Trager, F. N., ‘Economic Affairs,’ Ch. II in 1955–56 Review of United Nations, ed. by Eagleton, Clyde and Swift, Richard (New York, 1957)Google Scholar; and Trager, , ‘A Selected and Annotated Bibliography on Economic Development, 1953–1957,’ Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. VI, No. 4, Pt 1 July 1958, 257–329CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 ‘New Program for Foreign Aid,’ Message to Congress, March 22, 1961. Department of State, Washington, GPO, April, 1961.
6 See for example, The New York Times, June 4, 1961, ‘Foreign Aid Faces New Battle.’
7 The manpower data for this paper (not substantially changed since) has been drawn from Personnel for The Mutual Security Program, Louis J. Kroeger and Associates, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1957.
We have no summary data for the number of similarly trained personnel engaged for overseas duty by private industry, voluntary agencies, and foundations. One estimate places the total overseas employment for Americans at approximately 100,000. See Mangone, G. J., ‘Dungaree — Gray-Flannel Diplomacy’ in Americans at Work Abroad (Syracuse, 1957)Google Scholar.
8 The New York Times, March 8, 1957. A partial report of a three-day conference held at Syracuse University, March 6–8. Dr. Torre presumably finds high depression, suicide, promiscuity, and alcoholic rates among some classes of overseas personnel. Whether or not his findings represent more than his own overseas case records is not clear. His full paper is available in Americans at Work Abroad. His findings are interesting but not wholly persuasive.
9 Parenthetically it should be noted that underdeveloped countries are mainly in the tropics, are characterized by low levels of literacy, high incidence of disease, largely rural populations (frequently as high as 85 and 90 per cent in Asia and Africa and about 60 per cent in Latin America), newly come upon or otherwise striving for independence, particularly in Asia and Africa, inadequately equipped with capital and skilled manpower, but eager at the elite or educated leadership level to get on with the revolution of rising expectations.
10 See Sayre, W. S. and Thurber, C. E., Training For Specialized Mission Personnel (Chicago, 1952)Google Scholar.
11 See, for example, Asian Studies In Undergraduate and Teacher Education, Conference on Asian Affairs, Inc. (New York, 1956), mimeog. p. 39; andGoogle ScholarConference on World Awareness, The American Undergraduate and the Non-Western World (University of Rochester, 1956), mimeog. p. 91Google Scholar. The Asia Society, 112 E. 64th St., New York City, maintains very up-to-date records on these developments. See, same, American Institutions and Organisations Interested in Asia, ed. by Morehouse, Ward (New York, 1961),Google Scholar