Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T17:55:44.404Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

India and international norms of climate governance: a constructivist analysis of normative congruence building

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 January 2011

HAYLEY STEVENSON
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the process by which norms of international climate governance have diffused and evolved over time. The author develops a constructivist explanation for observed normative shifts in international climate governance. This explanation highlights the importance of building and maintaining congruence between domestic conditions and international norms. Due to the inherently fluid nature of both domestic conditions and international norms, it is argued that normative congruence building should be understood as an integral and iterative aspect of the norm diffusion process. This argument is substantiated through an analysis of the norm diffusion process in the context of India: a state commonly identified as an important player in international climate change politics, but one that has received surprisingly little scholarly attention in this area.

Type
Research Article
Information
Review of International Studies , Volume 37 , Issue 3 , July 2011 , pp. 997 - 1019
Copyright
Copyright © British International Studies Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 UN (UN), ‘Protection of global climate for present and future generations of mankind’, A/RES/43/53 (1988), available at: {http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/43/a43r053.htm}; UN, ‘Protection of global climate for present and future generations of mankind’, A/RES/44/207 (1989), available at: {http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r207.htm}.

2 Finnemore, Martha, National interests in international society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), p. 22Google Scholar .

3 These normative debates have also been analysed by Matthew J. Hoffmann and Loren Cass. See Hoffmann, Matthew J., Ozone Depletion and Climate Change (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005)Google Scholar ; and Cass, Loren, The Failures of American and European Climate Policy: International Norms, Domestic Politics, and Unachievable Commitments (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006)Google Scholar .

4 Throughout the 1990s, a small number of analyses of India's position in international climate politics were published, see Jasanoff, Sheila, ‘India at the crossroads in global environmental policy’, Global Environmental Change, 3:1 (1993), pp. 32–52Google Scholar ; Dasgupta, Chandrasekhar, ‘The Climate Change Negotiations’, in Mintzer, Irving M. and Leonard, J. Amber (eds), Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)Google Scholar ; Rajan, Mukund Govind, Global Environmental Politics: India and the North-South Politics of Global Environmental Issues (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997)Google Scholar ; Jakobsen, Susanne, International relations theory and the environment: a study of Brazilian and Indian policy-making on climate change, PhD Thesis (Denmark, Institute of Political Science, 1999)Google Scholar ; and Gupta, Joyeeta, ‘India and Climate Change Policy: Between Diplomatic Defensiveness and Industrial Transformation’, Energy and Environment, 12:2 (2001), pp. 217–236Google Scholar .

5 Gupta, Joyeeta and Grubb, Michael (eds), Climate change and European leadership: a sustainable role for Europe? (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)Google Scholar ; Fisher, Dana, National Governance and the Global Climate Change Regime (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, 2004)Google Scholar ; Harris, Paul G. (ed.), Europe and Global Climate Change: Politics, Foreign Policy and Regional Cooperation (Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, 2007)Google Scholar ; Harris, Paul G. (ed.), Global Warming and East Asia: The Domestic and International Politics of Climate Change (London: Routledge, 2003)Google Scholar ; and Harris, Paul G., Climate Change and American Foreign Policy (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000)Google Scholar .

6 Bulkeley, Harriet and Betsill, Michele, Cities and climate change: urban sustainability and global environmental governance (Routledge, London, 2003)Google Scholar ; Bulkeley, Harriet and Betsill, Michele, ‘Transnational Networks and Global Environmental Governance: The Cities for Climate Protection Program’, International Studies Quarterly, 48:2 (2004), pp. 471–493Google Scholar .

7 Newell, Peter, Climate for Change: Non-state Actors and the Global Politics of the Greenhouse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)Google Scholar ; Levy, David L. and Newell, Peter, The business of global environmental governance (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005)Google Scholar ; and Gulbrandsen, Lars H. and Andresen, Steinar, ‘NGO Influence in the Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol: Compliance, Flexibility Mechanisms, and Sinks’, Global Environmental Politics, 4:4 (2004), pp. 54–75Google Scholar .

8 Cass, Loren, The Failures of American and European Climate Policy; and Pettenger, Mary E. (ed.), The Social Construction of Climate Change (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007)Google Scholar .

9 Inspired by India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.

10 The main period of analysis is from the late 1980s to late 2007. However, as noted, recent developments will be briefly considered in the conclusion to this article.

11 UN, ‘Protection of global climate for present and future generations of mankind’ (1988); UN, ‘Protection of global climate for present and future generations of mankind’ (1989).

12 Bodansky, Daniel, ‘The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change: A Commentary’, Yale Journal of International Law, 18 (1993), p. 503Google Scholar .

13 UN, ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’ (1992), available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf}.

14 German Federal Ministry for the Environment, ‘Elements for a Comprehensive Protocol to the FCCC’. A/AC.237/L.23/Add.1 (1994), available at: {http://www.ccsr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/unfccc1/pdfs/unfccc.int/resource/docs/a/l23add1.pdf}, p. 3; UN, ‘Matters relating to commitments: Review of the Adequacy of Article 4 Paras 2(A) and (B)’, FCCC/CP/1995/Misc.1 (1995), available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop1/misc01.pdf}, p. 183.

15 UN, ‘Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’ (1997), available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf}, p. 9; UN, ‘Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session, held in Bali from 3 to 15 December 2007’, FCCC/CP/2007/6 (2007), available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06.pdf}, p. 14; UN, ‘Copenhagen Accord’, FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1 (2009), available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/11a01.pdf}, p. 5.

16 Bodansky, ‘The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’, p. 462.

17 IEA (International Energy Agency), Climate Change Policy Initiatives (Paris: IEA, 1992), pp. 24–25Google ScholarPubMed .

18 Bernstein, Steven, The Compromise of Liberal Environmentalism (New York: Colombia University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

19 Ibid.

20 Bodansky, ‘The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’, p. 478; and Agarwal, Anil, Narain, Sunita, and Sharma, Anju, Green Politics (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1999), pp. 38–39Google Scholar .

21 UN, ‘Kyoto Protocol’.

22 Acharya proposes a range of other motivations for engaging in congruence-building, including economic and security crises, systemic change in the global order, domestic political changes, emulation and imitation. Acharya, ‘How Ideas Spread’, p. 247.

23 For a comprehensive discussion of this literature, see Gourevitch, Peter, ‘Domestic Politics and International Relations’, in Carlsnaes, Walter, Risse, Thomas, and Simmons, Beth A. (eds), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage Publications, 2002), pp. 309–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

24 Gourevitch, Peter, ‘The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics’, International Organization, 32:4 (1978), pp. 881–912Google Scholar . On the ‘second image’, see Waltz, Kenneth, Man, the state, and war (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), chap. 4Google Scholar .

25 Putnam, Robert D., ‘Diplomacy and domestic politics: the logic of two-level games’, International Organization, 43:2 (1988), pp. 427–460CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

26 Keohane, Robert O. and Milner, Helen V. (eds), Internationalization and Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

27 For his part, Gourevitch did acknowledge that ideas ‘relate intimately to the critical functions any regime must perform’ and thus require ‘careful consideration’, but nevertheless chose to limit his analysis to material phenomena. Gourevitch, ‘The Second Image Reversed’, p. 883. For recent efforts to integrate ideational considerations into Putnam's two-level game, see Deets, Stephen, ‘Constituting Interests and Identities in a Two-Level Game: Understanding the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Dam Conflict’, Foreign Policy Analysis, 5 (2009), pp. 37–56Google Scholar ; and Daugbjerg, Carsten, ‘Ideas in Two-Level Games: The EC US Dispute Over Agriculture in the GATT Uruguay Round’, Comparative Political Studies, 41:9 (2008), pp. 1266–1289Google Scholar .

28 For a more comprehensive discussion of this matter, see Ruggie, John G., Constructing the World Polity: Essays on international institutionalization (London: Routledge, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

29 CheckelJeffrey, T. Jeffrey, T., ‘Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change’;. Arena Working Paper, No. 99/24, Arena Centre for European Studies (1999)Google Scholar . available at: {http://www.arena.uio.no/publications/wp99_24.htm}; Risse-Kappen, Thomas, ‘Ideas do not Float Freely: Transnational Coalitions, Domestic Structures, and the End of the Cold War’, International Organization, 48:2 (1994), pp. 185–294Google Scholar ; Cortell, Andrew P. and Davis, James W., ‘How Do International Institutions Matter? The Domestic Impact of International Rules and Norms’, International Studies Quarterly, 40 (1996), pp. 451–478Google Scholar ; Finnemore, Martha and Sikkink, Kathryn, ‘International Norm Dynamics and Political Change’, International Organization, 52:4 (1998), pp. 887–917Google Scholar ; Bernstein, Steven, ‘International institutions and the framing of domestic policies: The Kyoto Protocol and Canada's response to climate change’, Policy Sciences, 35:2 (2002), pp. 203–236Google Scholar .

30 Acharya, Amitav, ‘How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism’, International Organization, 58 (2004), pp. 239–275Google Scholar . Acharya attributes the motivation for localisation to local actors rather than external actors. By contrast, the process of congruence-building apparent in the case of India is performed by both local and external actors. A related (but non-constructivist) concept to norm ‘localisation’ is Newell's ‘domestication’ of international policy commitments, see Newell, Peter, ‘Lost in Translation? Domesticating Global Policy on Genetically Modified Organisms: Comparing India and China’, Global Society, 22:1 (2008), pp. 115–136Google Scholar .

31 Acharya, ‘How Ideas Spread’.

32 Entman, Robert, ‘Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm’, Journal of Communication, 43:4 (1993), pp. 51–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

33 Acharya, ‘How Ideas Spread’, p. 250.

34 Ibid., p. 244.

35 Kersbergen, Kees van and Verbeek, Bertjan, ‘The Politics of International Norms: Subsidiarity and the Imperfect Competence Regime of the EU’, European Journal of International Relations, 13:2 (2007), pp. 217–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

36 This is not to say that shared ideas are in a constant state of flux. As the case discussed in this article suggests, the broad prescription of a norm may remain stable even as actors interpret and reinterpret its specific meaning and application differently across time and space.

37 Farrell, Theo, ‘Transnational Norms and Military Development: Constructing Ireland's Professional Army’, European Journal of International Relations, 7:1 (2001), p. 65CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

38 Acharya, ‘How Ideas Spread’, p. 251.

39 Paterson, Matthew, Global Warming and Global Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77–80Google Scholar .

40 Government of India, India's National Communication to the UNFCCC (2004)Google Scholar .

41 Ibid., chap. 2, p. 32.

42 Ibid., p. 32.

43 Sharma, Subodh, Bhattacharya, Sumana and Garg, Amit, ‘Greenhouse gas emissions from India: A perspective’, Current Science, 90:3 (10 February 2006),p. 328Google Scholar .

44 Ibid., pp. 331–2.

45 Pew Center on Global Climate Change, ‘Climate Change 101: International Action’, available at: {http://www.pewcenteronthestates.org/uploadedFiles/Climate%20Change%20101,%20International%20Action.pdf}, p. 2.

46 Ibid., pp. 32–3.

47 Government of India, Planning Commission, Draft Report on the Expert Committee on Integrated Energy Policy (December 2005)Google Scholar , available at: {http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/intengpol.pdf}, p. 3; see also, Banerjee, Bani P., Handbook of Energy and Environment in India (New Delhi Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 273Google Scholar .

48 Government of India, Planning Commission, Draft Report on the Expert Committee on Integrated Energy Policy, p. 7Google Scholar .

49 Ray-Dadwal, Shebonti, Rethinking Energy Security in India (New Delhi: Knowledge World, 2002), p. 110Google Scholar .

50 Ibid., p. 11.

51 Government of India, India's National Communication to the UNFCCC (2004), chap. 1, p. 20Google Scholar .

52 Government of India, Planning Commission, Draft Report on the Expert Committee on Integrated Energy Policy, p. iiGoogle Scholar .

53 Ibid., p. 13.

54 Sharma, ‘India and Energy Security’, p. 167.

55 Hall, Peter A., ‘Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain’, Comparative Politics, 25:3 (1993), p. 279CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

56 Ibid.

57 While these ideas are most appropriately associated with the constructivist tradition, even Grieco, working within the realist tradition, concedes their relevance when he writes: ‘[…] the cognitive frameworks and ideological values of officials who set national policy importantly influence and constrain the latter's perceived range of options in the international political economy’. Grieco, Joseph M., Cooperation among Nations (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 24Google Scholar .

58 Herring, Ronald J. and Bharucha, Erach, ‘Embedded Capacities: India's Compliance with International Environmental Accords’, in Brown Weiss, Edith and Jacobson, Harold K. (eds), Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998), p. 398Google Scholar .

59 Susanne Jakobsen, ‘India's Position on Climate Change from Rio to Kyoto: A Policy Analysis’, CDR Working Paper 98.11 (1998), available at: {http://www.diis.dk/graphics/CDR_Publications/cdr_publications/working_papers/wp-98–11.htm}.

60 Other smaller domestic research institutes and rural development organisations are also known to have advised the Indian Government on climate related matters over the years, largely through personal contacts. For more detailed discussion on this, see Jakobsen, Susanne, International relations theory and the environment, pp. 230–233Google Scholar .

61 Government of India, Empowering People for Sustainable Development (2002), available at: {http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/ic/wssd/doc1/home.htm}, p. 8Google ScholarPubMed .

62 Government of India, National Environment Policy 2006, approved by the Union Cabinet on 18th May 2006, available at: {http://envfor.nic.in/nep/nep2006.html}, p. 2Google ScholarPubMed .

63 Confederation of Indian Industry, ‘Mission on Sustainable Growth’ (updated on 27 September 2007). Available at: {http://cii.in/menu_content.php?menu_id=170}.

64 Stuligross, David, ‘The Political Economy of Environmental Regulation in India’, Pacific Affairs, 72:3 (1999), pp. 395–396CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

65 The former is a term used by Desphande. Deshpande, Satish, Contemporary India: a sociological view (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003), p. 69Google Scholar .

66 Jenkins, Rob, ‘International development institutions and national – economic contexts: neo-liberalism encounters India's indigenous political traditions’, Economy and Society, 32:4 (2003), p. 597CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

67 Dutt, Sagarika, ‘India Unmasked: The Construction of a (Nation)-State (Review Article)’, Contemporary Politics, 8:3 (2002), p. 241Google Scholar ; Khilnani, Sunil, The Idea of India (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1997), pp. 69–70Google Scholar ; Peritore, Patrick, Third World Environmentalism: Case Studies from the Global South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 61–62Google Scholar .

68 Chatterjee, Partha, ‘Development Planning and the Indian State’, in Chatterjee, Partha (ed.), State and Politics in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 274Google Scholar .

69 Parekh, Bhikhu, ‘Nehru and the National Philosophy of India’, Economic and Political Weekly (5–12 January 1991), p. 37Google Scholar .

70 Muppidi, Himadeep, The Politics of the Global (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 44–48Google Scholar .

71 Guha, Ramachandra, India After Gandhi (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2007), p. 217Google Scholar .

72 Deshpande, , Contemporary India, pp. 72–73Google Scholar .

73 PMRao, Narasimha quoted in Muppidi, The Politics of the Global, p. 33Google Scholar .

74 For such discussion see, for example, Kholi, Atul, ‘Politics of Economic Growth in India, 1980–2005’, Part II: The 1990s and Beyond, Economic and Political Weekly (8 April 2006), p. 1361Google Scholar ; and Lakha, Salim, ‘From Swadeshi to globalisation: The Bharatiya Janata Party's shifting economic agenda’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 25:3 (2002), pp. 83–103Google Scholar .

75 Deshpande, , Contemporary India, pp. 72–73Google Scholar .

76 Malhotra, Sheena and Alagh, Tavishi, ‘Dreaming the Nation: Domestic Dramas in Hindi Films Post-1990’, South Asian Popular Culture, 2:1 (2004), pp. 19–37Google Scholar ; Arun Kumar, ‘Growth Scenario: Is the Common Man in the Picture?’, in Alternative Survey Group, Disequalising Growth: The Achilles' Heel of Liberalisation’, Alternative Economic Survey, India 2004–05 (Delhi: Daanish Books, 2005), pp. 41–50Google Scholar ; Sainath, P., ‘India Shining meets the Great Depression’, India Together (2 April 2006)Google Scholar , available at: {http://www.indiatogether.org/2006/apr/psa-depress.htm>}.

77 Gandhi, Indira quoted in Rajan, Global Environmental Politics, pp. 25–26Google Scholar .

78 Ramakrishnan, A. K., ‘Neoliberal Globalism and India's Foreign Policy: Towards Critical Rethinking’, in Harshe, R. and Seethi, K. M. (eds), Engaging with the World: Critical Reflections on India's Foreign Policy (New Delhi,: Orient Longman 2005), pp. 25–40.Google Scholar

79 Rajan, , Global Environmental Politics, pp. 37–39Google Scholar ; Cohen, Stephen P., India: Emerging Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 38Google Scholar ; Mohan, C. Raja, Crossing the Rubicon: The Shaping of India's New Foreign Policy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. xvGoogle Scholar .

80 Mohan, , Crossing the Rubicon, pp. 29–30Google Scholar .

81 Cohen, , India, p. 37Google ScholarPubMed .

82 Baru, Sanjaya, Strategic Consequences of India's Economic Performance (New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2006), p. 136Google Scholar .

83 Chenoy, Kamal Mitra and Chenoy, Anuradha M., ‘India's Foreign Policy Shifts and the Calculus of Power’, Economic and Political Weekly (1–7 September 2007), pp. 3547–3554Google Scholar .

84 Ibid; Mohan, , Crossing the Rubicon, pp. 47–48Google Scholar ; Bidwai, Praful, ‘India's clumsy balancing act’, Inter Press Service (26 June 2007)Google Scholar , available at: {http://www.tni.org}.

85 Ramakrishnan, ‘Neoliberal Globalism’.

86 Susanne Jakobsen, ‘India's Position on Climate Change from Rio to Kyoto’.

87 Gupta, Joyeeta, The Climate Change Convention and Developing Countries: From Conflict to Consensus? (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997), pp. 280–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

88 Rajan, , Global Environmental Politics, p. 103Google Scholar .

89 Ibid., pp. 103–4.

90 Gupta, , The Climate Change Convention and Developing Countries, p. 87Google Scholar ; Sheila Jasanoff, ‘India at the crossroads in global environmental policy’, pp. 34–6.

91 Agarwal, Anil and Narain, Sunita, Global Warming in an Unequal World (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1991)Google Scholar .

92 India, ‘Non-paper’. Draft Framework Convention on Climate Change. INC, Second session, Geneva, 19028, Item 2 of the provisional agenda. A/AC.237/Misc.1./Add.3 (June 1991). The CSE's case has since become more commonly associated with the Global Commons Institute (GCI)'s concept of ‘contraction and convergence’, but the development of this concept followed the publication of the CSE's Global Warming in an Unequal World and it is unlikely that India's environmental foreign policymakers were directly influenced by the GCI at this early stage.

93 Dasgupta, Chandrashekhar, ‘The Climate Change Negotiations’, in Mintzer, Irving M. and Leonard, J. Amber (eds), Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 133–134Google Scholar .

94 Bodansky, ‘The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’, pp. 520–1.

95 Gupta, , The Climate Change Convention and Developing Countries, p. 118Google Scholar .

96 Quoted in IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development), ‘Earth Negotiations Bulletin’, 12:20 (1995)Google Scholar , available at: {http://www.iisd.ca/download/asc/enb1220e.txt}.

97 This is reflected, for example, in Kamal Nath's plenary statement at the first Conference of the Parties, in 1995. Available at: {http://www.gci.org.uk/papers/Nairobi3b.pdf}. See also, Nath's statement of support for the position of GCI on climate change. Available at: {http://www.gci.org.uk/papers//Nairobi3b.pdf}. Nath explicitly acknowledges the affinity between the positions of the GCI and India in relation to climate change in a statement provided on the GCI's website.

98 The Climate Action Network (CAN) is an international network of more than 450 environmentalist organisations.

99 The Green Paper was a revision of the earlier AOSIS Protocol which had divided the G77; while many G77 states supported the proposal, others remained cautiously non-committal, and the oil-producing states rejected it outright. Agarwal, et al. , Green Politics, p. 45Google Scholar ; IISD, ‘Earth Negotiations Bulletin’, 12:21 (1995)Google Scholar . Available at: {http://www.iisd.ca/vol12/1221013e.html}; Jakobsen, Susanne, International relations theory and the environment, p. 201Google Scholar .

100 Agarwal, et al. , Green Politics, p. 45Google Scholar .

101 Report of the Conference of the Parties on its first session, held at Berlin from 28 March to 7 April 1995. Part one: Proceedings. FCCC/CP/1995/7 (1995), p. 23. Available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop1/07.pdf}.

102 IISD, ‘Earth Negotiations Bulletin’, 12:15 (1995). Available at: {http://www.iisd.ca/download/asc/enb1215e.txt}.

103 Kamal Nath, ‘Statement by Kamal Nath, Minister for Environment and Forests, India, to the Conference of the Parties to the Climate Change Convention, Berlin, Germany, 6 April 1995’. Available at: {http://www.gci.org.uk/papers/Nairobi3b.pdf}.

104 Grubb, Michael with Vrolijk, Christiaan and Brack, Duncan, The Kyoto protocol: a guide and assessment (Washington, DC: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1999), p. 101Google Scholar .

105 IISD, ‘Earth Negotiations Bulletin’, 12:76 (1997), Available at: {http://www.iisd.ca/download/asc/enb1276e.txt}; Joyeeta Gupta, ‘India and Climate Change Policy’, p. 221.

106 UN, ‘Clean Development Mechanism’. Available at: {http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php}.

107 Quoted in Gupta, ‘India and Climate Change Policy’, p. 222.

108 Atul Kholi, ‘Politics of Economic Growth in India, 1980–2005’.

109 Prior to this time, the private sector had taken little interest (and in many cases, no interest) in the issue of climate change. As Rajan, Gupta, and Jakobsen all attest, India's environmental foreign policymakers made no effort to involve business and industry actors in developing their negotiating position, and these actors made no effort to pressure the government. Rajan, , Global Environmental Politics, pp. 246–248Google Scholar ; Gupta, , The Climate change convention and developing countries, p. 53Google Scholar ; and Jakobsen, , International relations theory and the environment p. 210–214Google Scholar .

110 Hausker, Karl and McGinty, Kathleen, ‘India's Reappraisal of the Clean Development Mechanism’, Resources for the Future (January 2001), p. 11Google Scholar . Available at: {http://www.weathervane.rff.org/solutions_and_actions/Developing_Countries/Feature_IndiaReappraisalCDM.pdf}.

111 Ibid., pp. 11–2.

112 Embassy of India, ‘Joint Statement on Cooperation in Energy and Related Environmental Aspects’ (26 October 1999), available at: {http://www.indianembassy.org/pic/PR_1999/October_99/PR_Oct_26_1999.html}.

113 UNFCCC, ‘Views regarding Article 3, paragraph 9, of the Kyoto Protocol’, Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol, First session, Bonn (17–25 May 2006, 4 April 2006), FCCC/KP/AWG/2006/MISC.1, available at: {http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2006/awg1/eng/misc01.pdf}, p. 15.

114 Government of India, ‘Indian delegate's address to the Vienna Climate Change Talks’ (2007), AWG 4 and the Dialogue 4, Vienna, Austria, Plenary (27 August 2007, 15:00), available on UNFCC Webcast: {http://www.unfccc.webstream.at/}.

115 Ibid., ‘National CDM Authority’ (no date), available at: {http://cdmindia.nic.in/cdm_india.htm}.

116 Planning Commission, Government of India, ‘Report of the Working Group on National Action Plan For Operationalising the Clean Development Mechanism in India’ (December 2003), available at: {www.planningcommission.nic.in}, p. vi.

117 APP (Asia Pacific Partnership of Clean Development and Climate) ‘Communiqué’, Asia Pacific Partnership of Clean Development and Climate (2006), available at: {http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org/Communique.pdf}.

118 McGee, Jeffrey and Taplin, Ros, ‘The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate: A Complement or Competitor to the Kyoto Protocol?’, Global Change, Peace & Security, 18:3 (2006), pp. 174–177Google Scholar ; see also, McGee, Jeffrey and Taplin, Ros, ‘The role of the Asia Pacific Partnership in discursive contestation of the international climate regime’, International Environmental Agreements, 9 (2009), pp. 213–238Google Scholar .

119 See, for example, Manmohan Singh, ‘PM's Inaugural address at the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit’, New Delhi (7 February 2008), available at: {http://www.pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=649}.

120 Bidwai, ‘Changing Mind on Climate Change’.

121 G. Ananthapadmanabhan, K. Srinivas, and Vinuta Gopal, ‘Hiding Behind the Poor’, Greenpeace India (2007), available at: {http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/india/press/reports/hiding-behind-the-poor.pdf}, p. 2.

122 ‘Jairam for shift, not surrender’, Hindustan Times (20 October, 2009); ‘Congress distances itself from shift on climate stand’, The Times of India (20 October, 2009). See also, ‘Discussion regarding impact of climate change’, XV Lok Sabha (3 December, 2009), available at: {http://164.100.47.132/debatestext/15/III/0312.pdf}.

123 Government of India, Letter to the UNFCCC Executive Secretariat (30 January 2010), available at: {http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/application/pdf/indiacphaccord_app2.pdf}.

124 ‘Dasgupta attacks Jairam for ‘reversing’ national consensus’, United News of India (25 February, 2010); Sethi, Nitin, ‘Govt rejigs climate talks team’, The Times of India (21 May 2010)Google Scholar .