Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T07:38:07.912Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Opportunities and constraints to legume diversification for sustainable maize production on smallholder farms in Malawi

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2012

Wezi G. Mhango ,
Sieglinde S. Snapp  and
George Y.K. Phiri
Wezi G. Mhango
Affiliation:
Kellogg Biological Station, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
Sieglinde S. Snapp*
Affiliation:
Kellogg Biological Station, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
George Y.K. Phiri
Affiliation:
Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219. Lilongwe, Malawi.
*
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Sustainable intensification of smallholder farms in Africa is highly dependent on enhancing biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Legume diversification of maize-based systems is a core example of sustainable intensification, with the food security of millions of farm families at stake. This study highlights the constraints and opportunities associated with the adoption of legumes by smallholder farmers in southern Africa. A two-part survey of households and farm fields (n=88) was conducted in the Ekwendeni watershed of northern Malawi. Participatory research and education activities have been underway for over a decade in this region, resulting in expanded uptake of a range of legume species as intercrops and in rotation with the staple maize crop. Farmer adoption has occurred to a varying extent for soybean (Glycine max), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) and fish bean (Tephrosia vogelii). Farmers, working with the project valued pigeon pea and other legumes for soil fertility purposes to a greater extent than farmers not working with the project. Legumes were valued for a wide range of purposes beyond soil cover and fertility enhancement, notably for infant nutrition (at least for soybean), insect control, and vegetable and grain production for both market and home consumption. Literature values for BNF in tropical legumes range up to 170 kg N ha−1 for grain and 300 kg N ha−1 for green manure species; however, our field interviews illustrated the extent of constraints imposed by soil properties on smallholder fields in Malawi. The key edaphic constraints observed were very deficient to moderate phosphorus levels (range 4–142, average 33 mg kg−1), and moderately acid soils (range pH 5.1–7.9, average 6.2). The per farm hectarage devoted to legume production relative to maize production was also low (0.15 versus 0.35 ha), a surprising find in an area with demonstrated interest in novel legume species. Further, farmers showed a strong preference for legumes that produced edible grain, regardless of the associated nutrient removal in the harvested grain, and did not sow large areas to legume crops. These farm-level decisions act as constraints to BNF inputs in maize-based smallholder cropping systems. Overall, we found that legume productivity could be enhanced. We documented the value of policies and educational efforts that support farmers gaining access to high-quality seeds, amendments for phosphorus-deficient soils, and promotion of multipurpose legumes that build soils through leafy residues and roots, as well as providing grain for food security and sales.

Keywords

integrated soil fertility managementsmallholder farmersustainable intensification
Type
Research Papers
Information
Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , September 2013 , pp. 234 - 244
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Okalebo, J.R., Othieno, C.O., Woomer, P.L., Karanja, N.K., Semoka, J.R.M., Bekunda, M.A., Mugendi, D.N., Muasya, R.M., Bationo, A., and Mukhwana, E.J. 2006. Available technologies to replenish soil fertility in East Africa. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 76:153–170.Google Scholar
2Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K., Thomson, J.A., Sastry, P.V.S.S., Giller, K.E., and Day, J.M. 1987. Measurement of N2 fixation in field-grown pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill sp.) using l5N-labelled fertilizer. Plant and Soil 101:107–113.Google Scholar
3Jemo, M., Abaidoo, R., Nolte, C., Tchienkoua, M., Sanginga, N., and Horst, W.J. 2006. Phosphorus benefits from grain-legume crops to subsequent maize grown on acid soils of southern Cameroon. Plant and Soil 284:385–397.Google Scholar
4Rao, M.R. and Mathuva, M.N. 2000. Legumes for improving maize yields and income in semi arid Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 78:123–137.Google Scholar
5Snapp, S., Kanyama Phiri, G.Y., Kamanga, B., Gilbert, R., and Wellard, K. 2002. Farmer and researcher partnerships in Malawi: Developing soil fertility technologies for the near term and far term. Experimental Agriculture 38:411–431.Google Scholar
6Adu-Gyamfi, J.J., Myaka, F.A., Sakala, W.D., Odgaard, R., Vesterager, J.M., and Hogh-Jensen, H. 2007. Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize–pigeon pea in semi-arid southern and eastern Africa. Plant and Soil 295:127–136.Google Scholar
7Ojiem, J.O., Vanlauwe, B., de Ridder, N., and Giller, K.E. 2007. Niche-based assessment of contributions of legumes to the nitrogen economy of Western Kenya smallholder farms. Plant and Soil 292:119–135.Google Scholar
8Snapp, S.S., Blackie, M.J., Gilbert, R.A., Bezner-Kerr, R., and Kanyama-Phiri, G.Y. 2010. Biodiversity can support a greener revolution in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 107:20840–20845.Google Scholar
9Giller, K.E., Cadisch, G., Ehaliotis, C., Adams, E., Sakala, W.D., and Mafongoya, P.L. 1997. Building soil nitrogen capital in Africa. In: Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa. SSSA Special Publication No. 51. Madison, Wisconsin. p. 151–192.Google Scholar
10Kumwenda, J.D.T., Waddington, S.R., Snapp, S.S., Jones, R.B., and Blackie, M.J. 1997. Soil fertility management in smallholder maize based cropping systems of southern Africa. In Byerloe, D. and Eicher, C.K. (eds). Africa's Emerging Maize Revolution. Lynne Publishers, Boulder, CO. p. 153–172.Google Scholar
11Bezner Kerr, R., Snapp, S., Chirwa, M., Shumba, L., and Msachi, R. 2007. Participatory research on legume diversification with Malawian smallholder farmers for improved human nutrition and soil fertility. Experimental Agriculture 43:437–453.Google Scholar
12Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT 2011. Available at web site http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor (accessed on July 26, 2011).Google Scholar
13Kayinamura, B., Murwira, H.K., and Chivenge, P. 2003. Time of incorporation of different legumes affects soil moisture and yield of the following crop in maize based systems of Zimbabwe. In Waddington, S.R. (ed.). Grain Legumes and Green Manures for Soil Fertility in Southern Africa: Taking Stock of Progress. Soil Fert Net, Harare, Zimbabwe. p. 169–172.Google Scholar
14Akinnifesi, F.K., Ajayi, O.C., Sileshi, G., Chirwa, P.W., and Chianu, J. 2011. Fertilizer trees for sustainable food security in the maize-based production systems of east and southern Africa. Sustainable Agriculture 2:129–146.Google Scholar
15Giller, K. 2001. Nitrogen Fixation in Tropical Cropping Systems. CABI Publishing, UK.Google Scholar
16Hoa, N.T.L., Thao, T.Y., Lieu, P., and Herridge, D. 2002. Nitrogen fixation of groundnut in eastern region ofSouth Vietnam. In Herridge, D. (ed.). Inoculants and Nitrogen Fixation of Legumes in Vietnam. ACIAR Proceedings 109. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Hanoi, Vietnam. p. 19–28.Google Scholar
17Mhango, W.G., Mughogho, S.K., Sakala, W.D., and Saka, A.R. 2008. The effect of phosphorus and sulphur fertilizers on grain legume and maize productivity in northern Malawi. Bunda Journal of Agriculture, Environmental Science and Technology 2:20–27.Google Scholar
18Snapp, S.S., Mafongoya, P.L., and Waddington, S. 1998. Organic matter technologies for integrated nutrient management in smallholder cropping systems of southern Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 71:185–200.Google Scholar
19Kwesiga, F. and Coe, R. 1994. The effect of short rotation Sesbania sesban planted fallows on maize yield. Forest Ecology and Management 64:199–208.Google Scholar
20Phiri, A.D.K., Kanyama-Phiri, G.Y.K., and Snapp, S.S. 1999. Maize and sesbania production in relay at three landscape positions in Malawi. Agroforestry Agriculture 36:205–221.Google Scholar
21Gilbert, G.A. 2004. Best bet legumes for smallholder maize based cropping systems of Malawi. In Eilittä, M., Mureithi, J. and Derpsch, R. (eds). Green Manure/Cover Crop Systems of Smallholder Farmer: Experiences from Tropical and Subtropical Regions. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands. p. 153–174.Google Scholar
22Hauggaard-Nielsen, H., Jornsgaard, B., Kinane, J., and Jensen, E.S. 2008. Grain legume–cereal intercropping: The practical application of diversity, competition and facilitation in arable and organic cropping systems. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 23:3–12.Google Scholar
23Snapp, S.S., Rohrbach, D.D., Simtowe, F., and Freeman, H.A. 2002. Sustainable soil management options for Malawi: Can smallholder farmers grow more legumes? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 91:159–174.Google Scholar
24Malawi Government, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Food Security 2005. Guide to agriculture production and natural resource management in Malawi. Agriculture Communication Branch, Lilongwe, Malawi.Google Scholar
25Snapp, S.S. and Silim, S.N. 2002. Farmer preferences and legume intensification for low nutrient environments. Plant and Soil 245:181–192.Google Scholar
26Sanginga, N. 2003. Role of biological nitrogen fixation in legume based cropping systems: A case study of West Africa farming systems. Plant and Soil 252(1):25–39.Google Scholar
27Chikowo, R., Mapfumo, P., Nyamugafata, P., and Giller, K.E. 2004. Maize productivity and mineral nitrogen dynamics following different soil fertility management practices on a depleted sandy soil in Zimbabwe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 102:119–131.Google Scholar
28Sanginga, N., Dashiell, K., and Okugan, J.A. 1997. Nitrogen fixation and N contribution by promiscuous nodulating soybeans in southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Plant and Soil 195:257–266.Google Scholar
29Ncube, B., Twomlow, S.T., van Wijk, M.T., Dimes, J.P., and Giller, K.E. 2007. Productivity and residual benefits of grain legumes to sorghum under semi-arid conditions in southwestern Zimbabwe. Plant and Soil 299:1–15.Google Scholar
30Katayama, K., Ito, O., Matsunanga, R., Adu-Gyamfi, J.J., Rao, T.R., Anders, M.M., and Lee, K.K. 1995. Nitrogen balance and root behavior in four pigeon pea based intercropping systems. Fertilizer Research 42:315–319.Google Scholar
31Rebafka, F.P., Ndunguru, B.J., and Marschner, H. 1993. Crop residue application increases nitrogen fixation and dry matter production in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) grown on an acid sandy soil in Niger, West Africa. Plant and Soil 150(2):213–222.Google Scholar
32Egbe, O.M., Idoga, S., and Idoko, J.A. 2007. Preliminary Investigation of Residual Benefits of pigeon pea genotypes intercropped with maize in southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Environment 3:58–75.Google Scholar
33Nezomba, H., Tauro, T.P., Mtambanenge, F., and Mapfumo, P. 2010. Indigenous legume fallows (indifallows) as an alternative soil fertility resource in smallholder maize cropping systems. Field Crops Research 115(2):149–157.Google Scholar
34Sanginga, N., Ibewiro, B., Houngnandan, P., Vanlauwe, B., Okugun, J.A., Akobundu, I.O., and Vesteeg, M. 1996. Evaluation of symbiotic properties and nitrogen contribution of mucuna to maize grown in the derived savanna of West Africa. Plant and Soil 179:119–129.Google Scholar
35Sanginga, N., Vanlauwe, B., and Danso, S.K.A. 1995. Management of biological nitrogen fixation in alley cropping systems: Estimation of contribution to N balance. Plant and Soil 174:119–141.Google Scholar
36Bezner Kerr, R. and Chirwa, M. 2005. Food security in northern Malawi: Historical context and the significance of gender, kinship relations and entitlements. Journal of Southern Africa Studies 31:53–74.Google Scholar
37Snapp, S.S. 1998. Soil nutrient status of smallholder farms in Malawi. Communication in Soil and Plant Analysis 29:2571–2588.Google Scholar
38Denning, G., Kabambe, P., Sanchez, P., Malik, A., Flor, R., Harawa, R., Nkhoma, P., Zamba, C., Banda, C., Magombo, C., Keating, M., Wangila, J., and Sachs, J. 2009. Input subsidies to improve smallholder maize productivity in Malawi: Toward an African green revolution. PLoS Biology 7(1):e1000023.Google Scholar
39Chilimba, A.D.C., Mughogho, S.K., and Wendt, J. 1999. Mehlich 3 or Modified Olsen for soil testing in Malawi. Communication in Soil and Plant Analysis 30:1231–1250.Google Scholar
40A&L Great Lake Laboratories, Fort Wayne, IN, USA. Available at www.algreatlakes.com/cor_abo.php (accessed April 30, 2012).Google Scholar
41Mehlich, A. 1984. Mehlich no.3 extractant: A modification of Mehlich no.2 extractant. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 15:1409–1416.Google Scholar
42Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. 1945. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soil. Soil Science 59:39–45.Google Scholar
43McIntosh, J.L. 1969. Bray and Morgan soil extractants modified for testing acid soils from different parent materials. Agronomy Journal 61:259–265.Google Scholar
44Gee, G.W. and Bauder, J.W. 1986. Particle-size analysis. In , A., Klute (ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis, Pt. 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods Agronomy Monographs. 2nd ed.American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. p. 383–411.Google Scholar
45Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA.Google Scholar
46SAS Institute 2001. Statistical Analysis Software (SAS). SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.Google Scholar
47Chatterjee, S. and Hadi, A.S. 2006. Regression Analysis by Example. 4th ed.John Wiley and Sons, USA.Google Scholar
48Burke, M.B., Lobell, D.B., and Guarino, L. 2009. Shifts in African climates by 2050, and the implications for crop improvement and genetic resources conservation. Global Environmental Change 19(3):317–325.Google Scholar
49Funk, C., Dettinger, M.D., Michaelsen, J.C., Verdin, J.P., Brown, M.E., Barlow, M., and Hoell, A. 2008. Warming of the Indian Ocean threatens eastern and southern African food security but could be mitigated by agricultural development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 105:11081–11086.Google Scholar
50Smaling, E.M.A. and Dixon, J. 2006. Adding a soil fertility dimension to the global farming systems approach, with cases from Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 116:15–26.Google Scholar
51Beedy, T.L., Snapp, S.S., Akinnifesi, F.K., and Sileshi, G.W. 2010. Impact of Gliricidia sepium intercropping on soil organic matter fraction in maize based cropping system. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 138(3–4):139–146.Google Scholar
52Wendt, J.W. 1995. Mehlich 3 soil extractant for Malawi soils. Communication in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 26:687–702.Google Scholar
53Ofori, F., Pate, J.S., and Stern, W.R. 1987. Evaluation of nitrogen fixation and nitrogen economy of a maize/cowpea intercrop system using 15N dilution methods. Plant and Soil 102:149–160.Google Scholar
54Fujita, K., Ofosu-Bundu, K.G., and Ogata, S. 1992. Biological nitrogen fixation in mixed legume-cereal cropping systems. Plant and Soil 141:155–175.Google Scholar
55Tittonell, P., Leffelaar, P.A., Vanlauwe, B., van Wijk, M.T., and Giller, K.E. 2006. Exploring diversity of crop and soil management within smallholder African farmers: A dynamic model for simulation of N balances and use efficiencies at field scale. Agricultural Systems 91:71–101.Google Scholar
56Kitch, L.W., Boukar, O., Endondo, C., and Murdock, L.L. 1998. Farmer acceptability criteria in breeding cowpea. Experimental Agriculture 34:475–486.Google Scholar
57Sperling, L. and Scheidegger, U. 1995. Participatory Selection of Beans in Rwanda: Results, Methods and Institutional Issues. Gatekeeper Series No. 51. International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK.Google Scholar
58Liu, K. 1999. Soybean: Chemistry, Technology and Utilization. Aspen Publishers Inc., USA.Google Scholar
59Fuji, Y., Shibuya, T., and Yasuda, T. 1991. L-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine as an allelochemical candidate from Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var. utilis. Agricultural Biology and Chemistry 55:617–618.Google Scholar
60Pulangethi, M., Vadivel, V., and Siddhuraju, P. 2005. Alternative food/feed perspectives of an underutilized legume Mucuna pruriens var. Utilis – A review. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 60:201–218.Google Scholar
61Koona, P. and Dorn, S. 2005. Extracts from Tephrosia vogelii for the protection of stored legume seeds against damage by three bruchid species. Annual of Applied Biology 147:43–48.Google Scholar
62Freeman, H.A., Van Der Merwe, P.J.A., Subrahmanyam, P., Chiyembekeza, A.J., and Kaguongo, W. 2002. Assessing adoption potential of new groundnut varieties in Malawi. Experimental Agriculture 38:211–221.Google Scholar
63Abate, T. and Ampofo, J.K.O. 1996. Insect pests of beans in Africa: Their ecology and management. Annual Review of Entomology 41:45–73.Google Scholar
64Zahran, H.H. 1999. Rhizobium-legume symbiosis and nitrogen fixation under severe conditions and in an arid climate. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 63:968–989.Google Scholar
65Kabambe, V.H., Mhango, W.G., Msiska, M., Msuku, W.A.B., Nyirenda, G.K.C., and Masangano, C. 2008. Facilitating food crop production in Lungwena, Mangochi district in Malawi: Lessons from a farmer based pass-on seed support model. African Journal of Agricultural Research 3:440–447.Google Scholar