Functional activity in the visual cortex was assessed using functional magnetic resonance imaging technology while participants viewed a series of pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant pictures. Coronal images at four different locations in the occipital cortex were acquired during each of eight 12-s picture presentation periods (on) and 12-s interpicture interval (off ). The extent of functional activation was larger in the right than the left hemisphere and larger in the occipital than in the occipitoparietal regions during processing of all picture contents compared with the interpicture intervals. More importantly, functional activity was significantly greater in all sampled brain regions when processing emotional (pleasant or unpleasant) pictures than when processing neutral stimuli. In Experiment 2, a hypothesis that these differences were an artifact of differential eye movements was ruled out. Whereas both emotional and neutral pictures produced activity centered on the calcarine fissure (Area 17), only emotional pictures also produced sizable clusters bilaterally in the occipital gyrus, in the right fusiform gyrus, and in the right inferior and superior parietal lobules.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between force and rate of force development with electroencephalogram correlates. The primary question was whether the different components of movement related potentials (MRPs) were related to specific properties of force output while subjects performed index finger force production tasks. The peak force and rate of force development (e.g., a product of peak force over time-to-peak force) were manipulated, and the effects of these manipulations on components of MRPs preceding and accompanying force production tasks were examined. The hypothesis was that the rate of force development, rather than level of force itself, would directly influence the later component of MRPs. Consistent with this hypothesis was the finding that the amplitudes of MRP components preceding (MP) and accompanying (MMP, MTP) finger force production movements were significantly correlated with force development rate.

Whole-head magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses to repeating standard tones and to infrequent slightly higher deviant tones and complex novel sounds were recorded together with event-related brain potentials (ERPs). Deviant tones and novel sounds elicited the mismatch negativity (MMN) component of the ERP and its MEG counterpart (MMNm) both when the auditory stimuli were attended to and when they were ignored. MMNm generators were located bilateral to the superior planes of the temporal lobes where preattentive auditory discrimination appears to occur. A subsequent positive P3a component was elicited by deviant tones and with a larger amplitude by novel sounds even when the sounds were to be ignored. Source localization for the MEG counterpart of P3a (P3am) suggested that the auditory cortex in the superior temporal plane is involved in the neural network of involuntary attention switching to changes in the acoustic environment.

Two studies of the relationship between depression and resting frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) activity are reported. Although considerable research supports the theory of left and right hemispheric specialization for approach and withdrawal behaviors, only four studies involving clinically depressed individuals have been published to date. Despite methodological similarities with published research, no significant differences in frontal activation emerged between depressed and nondepressed participants with either college students having high Beck Depression Inventory scores (Study 1) or with individuals diagnosed with DSM-III-R depression (Study 2). Post hoc analyses in Study 2 revealed one effect confined to lateral frontal leads during the first 2 min of EEG data; this finding was significant in only one of three reference montages. Results are discussed in light of methodological considerations and mediating variables such as temperament and coping styles.

The impact of static muscle tension on total respiratory resistance (TRR) was examined. Participants (24 healthy, 24 asthmatic) performed biofeedback-assisted sequences of tensing (15 s) and relaxing (20 s) forehead and forearm muscles. Muscle tension levels were 40% or 80% of the maximum individual force. Oscillatory TRR, electromyograms, ventilation, heart period, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia were recorded. Baseline TRR did not change over the session as a whole. Decreases in TRR during forehead tension in both groups were accompanied by increases in end-expiratory volume, which could have mediated TRR changes. During forearm tension, decreases in TRR with minimal ventilation changes were only observed in healthy participants, whereas asthmatic patients revealed marked increases in respiratory volume and flow. These results indicate that static muscle activity and TRR are negatively related. Ventilatory changes can exaggerate or diminish evidence for this relationship.

Episodic memory encoding and distinctiveness detection were examined using event-related potentials (ERP) in a single-trial word list learning paradigm with free recall following distraction. To manipulate distinctiveness, encoding of high- and very low-frequency words was contrasted. Amplitudes of the N400 and late positive component (LPC) were larger for low- than for high-frequency words, and ERPs were more positive for subsequently recalled than not recalled words. This subsequent memory effect was dissociated from the correlates of distinctiveness by polarity for the N400 and by time course for the LPC and dissociable into two effects. The data suggest that the first subsequent memory effect, which occurred for both word categories, is more directly related to episodic memory formation, whereas the second effect, which occurred for high-frequency words only, is related to processes influencing episodic encoding success indirectly.

The topography of the postimperative negative variation (PINV) was analyzed in participants with high and low scores on the German version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. Scalp amplitude and Laplacian maps of the terminal contingent negative variation (tCNV) and PINV and the time course of the PINV were compared between the two groups. CNV and PINV were induced with a delayed matching-to-sample task, in which the pattern of the imperative stimulus was either clearly or ambiguous matched to one of the two diamonds simultaneously presented as a warning stimulus 4.0 s earlier. Electroencephalograms were recorded with a DC amplifier (32 channels). Negativity increased from tCNV to PINV, especially at frontal sites, and the PINV was larger under ambiguous than under clear matching conditions. Low-scoring participants showed a right-sided predominance of the PINV, which was absent in high-scoring participants. These results resemble differences in the topography of the PINV between healthy control participants and those with schizophrenia under identical experimental conditions and suggest functional differences between tCNV and PINV.

The effects of methylphenidate (0.3 mg/kg) on young adults' paired-associate learning (PAL) of consonant–vowel–consonant (CVC) pairs and concomitant event-related potentials were assessed. The stimulant elevated mood and heart rate but did not affect PAL performance. For the first CVC, there were amplitude increases with learning for P3b at Pz, P2 at midline sites, and for a negative slow wave at Cz. For the second CVC, P3b and positive slow wave amplitude declined with learning. Increases in P3b amplitude to the first CVC were attributed to increments in stimulus meaningfulness. Decreases in P3b amplitude to the second CVC were interpreted as resulting from fewer disconfirmed expectations of feedback. The negative slow wave following the first CVC was viewed as a contingent negative variation. Methylphenidate increased parietal P3b amplitude for CVC 2, averaged over learning phases.

A heartbeat detection task, based on the method of constant stimuli (MCS), requires participants to judge which of a series of tones presented at different delays following a heartbeat are coincident with the heartbeat. Two experiments were conducted to test the validity of the MCS in assessing individual differences in the ability to detect heartbeat sensations. The first experiment found the MCS to be valid, in that about one-third of subjects met the criterion for classification as heartbeat detectors when the tones were presented with respect to their actual heartbeats, but only one subject met the criterion when the tones were presented with respect to previously recorded heartbeats. The second experiment manipulated the timing of the comparison intervals (i.e., R + 100–600 ms rather than R + 0–500 ms) to examine the validity of the median R-wave to tone interval as an index of temporal location of perceived heartbeats, and found it to be a valid index.

Whether late positive components of event-related potentials (ERPs) parallel changes in heart rate (HR) indicative of attention/orienting to rare stimuli has been debated. In the present study, a three-stimulus design was used, with rare target, rare nontarget, and frequent standard stimuli delivered under identical conditions except that instructions to subjects described the targets to which subjects should respond but did not describe the nontargets. In Experiment 1, stimuli varied among modalities; in Experiment 2, auditory stimuli were employed. Both ERPs and HR were consistent with automatic processing preceding two stages of controlled processing. Rare stimuli evoked larger parietal P300 and initial HR deceleration than standards. Presumably because of load-reducing effects of long interstimulus intervals, targets and nontargets were not distinguished before a late slow wave and a late phase of HR acceleration. Neither rare stimulus elicited a recognizable frontal P3a.

Effects of movement advance information were assessed on the prestimulus amplitude of the lateralized readiness potential (LRP), on the contingent negative variation (CNV), and on reaction time (RT). In a precuing paradigm with movement parameters hand, direction, and force, partial precues provided advance information about either hand alone, hand plus force, or hand plus direction, and the full precue specified all response parameters. The full precue produced the shortest RTs and the largest CNV amplitude, precuing hand and force or hand and movement direction produced somewhat slower RTs and a somewhat smaller CNV amplitude, and precuing only hand yielded slowest RTs and the smallest CNV amplitude. In contrast, the LRP amplitude was largest for the full precue and was the same for the remaining precues. The CNV appears to index the central assembling of a motor program, and the LRP represents the implementation of the program at more peripheral levels.

It is widely agreed that the negative brain potential elicited at 150–200 ms by a deviant, less intense sound in a repetitive series can be modulated by attention. To investigate whether this modulation represents a genuine attention effect on the mismatch negativity (MMN) arising from auditory cortex or attention-related activity from another brain region, we recorded both the MMN and the mismatch magnetic field (MMF) elicited by such deviants in a dichotic listening task. Deviant tones in the attended ear elicited a sizable MMF that was well modeled as a dipolar source in auditory cortex. Both the MMN and MMF to unattended-ear deviants were highly attenuated. These findings support the view that the MMN/MMF elicited in auditory cortex by intensity deviants, and thus the underlying feature-analysis and mismatch-detection processes, are not strongly automatic but rather can be gated or suppressed if attention is strongly focused elsewhere.

Blood pressure presentation mode and personality are likely to influence biofeedback outcome. Thirty-six normotensive subjects were randomly assigned to visual or auditory continuous systolic feedback. “Distracting speech” and “broad band noise” were also superimposed and the effect on the biofeedback response was investigated. Psychological influence was also investigated. Systolic pressure reductions of 4 ± 4.3 mmHg (visual, p = .04) and 5 ± 5.5 mmHg (visual + auditory, p = .03) were achieved compared with auditory feedback (2 ± 4.7 mmHg), which was less effective. The addition of noise or speech had no effect on the systolic response, but speech adversely affected diastolic reduction (p = .04). Mood (p = .003) was associated with systolic lowering, whereas increased trait anxiety (p = .06) and expectation (p = .03) had trends for opposite effects. Increased anger-hostility, state-anxiety, and expectation (p = .06) had links with systolic raising capability. We conclude that feedback modality and psychological characteristics have implications for studies investigating blood pressure manipulation capability.

In two experiments, we explored the utility of using event-related brain potentials (ERPs) evoked during picture recognition to examine the cognitive and neural processes underlying primacy and recency effects. Each experiment consisted of 210 trials in which a recognition probe followed a 12-picture sequence (105 match and 105 nonmatch trials). The 105 match-probe trials consisted of 35 trials in which the probe matched a prime memory set item (Positions 1–3), 35 in which the probe matched a middle memory set item (Positions 6–8), and 35 in which the probe matched a recent memory set item (Positions 10–12). Behavioral results revealed recency but not primacy effects in both experiments. Recent probes, compared with prime and middle probes, evoked ERPs that were more positive from approximately 300 to 400 ms; this enhanced positivity occurred in a positive component peaking around 315 ms and a negative component peaking around 365 ms. These findings fit more closely with the notion of short-term memory as an activation of elements in long-term memory than as a distinct memory store (or stores) separate from long-term memory.

Psychophysiological “preparatory” responses may or may not depend on a focused expectation of when a stimulus will occur. Changes in heart rate, pupillary diameter, and brain potentials were examined during trials in which foreperiod of a simple reaction time (RT) task was fixed or unpredictable. Trials were also included in which stimuli for the speeded motor reaction were triggered by psychophysiological changes occurring spontaneously in the foreperiod. Thirty-two college-aged volunteers equally divided by gender participated in the experiment. Reducing expectancy, by using nonaging foreperiods, eliminated transient prestimulus psychophysiological responses but failed to eliminate slow changes over the foreperiod—slowing of heart rate, dilation of the pupil, and cortical surface negativity. Triggering the reaction stimulus by physiological changes did not influence RT. Correlations between psychophysiological changes in the foreperiod and between these changes and RT were generally low. The results were consistent with a multiprocess view of preparation.

Blood pressure presentation mode and personality are likely to influence biofeedback outcome. Thirty-six normotensive subjects were randomly assigned to visual or auditory continuous systolic feedback. “Distracting speech” and “broad band noise” were also superimposed and the effect on the biofeedback response was investigated. Psychological influence was also investigated. Systolic pressure reductions of 4 ± 4.3 mmHg (visual, p = .04) and 5 ± 5.5 mmHg (visual + auditory, p = .03) were achieved compared with auditory feedback (2 ± 4.7 mmHg), which was less effective. The addition of noise or speech had no effect on the systolic response, but speech adversely affected diastolic reduction (p = .04). Mood (p = .003) was associated with systolic lowering, whereas increased trait anxiety (p = .06) and expectation (p = .03) had trends for opposite effects. Increased anger-hostility, state-anxiety, and expectation (p = .06) had links with systolic raising capability. We conclude that feedback modality and psychological characteristics have implications for studies investigating blood pressure manipulation capability.

ERP topographies for 30 scalp electrodes were examined in 26 healthy right-handed volunteers during oddball tasks (20% targets) using binaurally presented consonant-vowel syllables or complex tones. Response hand was counterbalanced across participants. Both window averages and a principal components analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation revealed task-related (tonal/phonetic) hemispheric asymmetries for N2, early P3, and particularly for N2-P3 amplitude. In the tonal task, N2 was maximal over right lateral-temporal regions, and early P3 over right medial-parietal regions. For the phonetic task, N2 was maximal over the left lateral-parietal regions, and late P3/N3 over left medial-parietal regions. A response-related frontal negativity (N3) interacted with task-related asymmetries in an unbalanced fashion. The distinct, asymmetric N2 and P3 topographies for tonal and phonetic tasks presumably reflect differential involvement of cortical structures in pitch (right frontotemporal) and phoneme (left parietotemporal) discrimination.

A basic feature of human evaluative conditioning is that the reported acquired valence of a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) that has been paired with a valenced unconditioned stimulus (US), is resistant to extinction. The present study investigated whether startle modulation, sometimes presented as an index of acquired valence, reflected this basic feature. In a differential fear conditioning paradigm (n = 38) with an electrocutaneous stimulus as the US, a strong extinction manipulation was conducted by removing the US-electrodes and by extended extinction trials. At the end of extinction, the results corroborated previous findings of evaluative conditioning in that the reported valence for CS+ was still more negative than for CS−, despite disappearance of the differential skin conductance responses. However, startle modulation did not show resistance-to-extinction. Results were discussed in terms of recent conceptualizations of extinction.

The effects of global and feature-specific probabilities of auditory stimuli were manipulated to determine their effects on the mismatch negativity (MMN) of the human event-related potential. The question of interest was whether the automatic comparison of stimuli indexed by the MMN was performed on representations of individual stimulus features or on gestalt representations of their combined attributes. The design of the study was such that both feature and gestalt representations could have been available to the comparator mechanism generating the MMN. The data were consistent with the interpretation that the MMN was generated following an analysis of stimulus features.

The difference in attention and cognitive performance between 26 hypotensive (systolic blood pressure < 100 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure < 60 mmHg) and 22 normotensive female university students was assessed. Attention was examined with contingent negative variation (CNV) recorded using light and tone as S1 and S2. Cognitive performance was assessed by free recall of a list of words and two German tests of cognitive speed performance and sustained attention: Zahlen-Verbindungs-Test and d2. The hypotensive participants demonstrated a lower increase in negativity on the CNV. Moreover, in the free recall test, hypotensive individuals remembered fewer words, in comparison with normotensive subjects. Scores for hypotensive individuals on the Zahlen-Verbindungs-Test and d2 were also lower. No difference was found in reaction times to imperative stimuli (S2).