Depression is a common, disabling condition for which psychological treatments, in particular cognitive behavioural therapies are recommended. Promising results in recent randomized trials have renewed interest in behavioural therapy. This systematic review sought to identify all randomized trials of behavioural therapy for depression, determine the effect of such interventions and examine any moderators of such effect.

Randomized trials of behavioural treatments of depression versus controls or other psychotherapies were identified using electronic database searches, previous reviews and reference lists. Data on symptom-level, recovery/dropout rate and study-level moderators (study quality, number of sessions, severity and level of training) were extracted and analysed using meta-analysis and meta-regression respectively.

Seventeen randomized controlled trials including 1109 subjects were included in this meta-analysis. A random-effects meta-analysis of symptom-level post-treatment showed behavioural therapies were superior to controls [standardized mean difference (SMD) −0.70, 95% CI −1.00 to −0.39, k=12, n=459], brief psychotherapy (SMD −0.56, 95% CI −1.0 to −0.12, k=3, n=166), supportive therapy (SMD −0.75, 95% CI −1.37 to −0.14, k=2, n=45) and equal to cognitive behavioural therapy (SMD 0.08, 95% CI −0.14 to 0.30, k=12, n=476).

The results in this study indicate behavioural therapy is an effective treatment for depression with outcomes equal to that of the current recommended psychological intervention. Future research needs to address issues of parsimony of such interventions.

Most of our knowledge about borderline personality disorder features has been obtained through the study of clinical samples. Although these studies are important in their own right, they are limited in their ability to address certain important epidemiological and aetiological questions such as the degree to which there is a genetic influence on the manifestation of borderline personality disorder features. Though family history studies of borderline personality disorder indicate genetic influences, there have been very few twin studies and the degree of genetic influence on borderline personality disorder remains unclear.

Data were drawn from twin samples from The Netherlands (n=3918), Belgium (n=904) and Australia (n=674). In total, data were available on 5496 twins between the ages of 18 and 86 years from 3644 families who participated in the study by completion of a mailed self-report questionnaire on borderline personality disorder features.

In all countries, females scored higher than males and there was a general tendency for younger adults to endorse more borderline personality disorder features than older adults. Model-fitting results showed that additive genetic influences explain 42% of the variation in borderline personality disorder features in both men and women and that this heritability estimate is similar across The Netherlands, Belgium and Australia. Unique environmental influences explain the remaining 58% of the variance.

Genetic factors play a role in individual differences in borderline personality disorder features in Western society.

The aetiology of chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) is still unknown. The identification of risk factors for CFS/ME is of great importance to practitioners.

A systematic scoping review was conducted to locate studies that analysed risk factors for CFS/ME using multiple predictors. We searched for published and unpublished literature in 11 electronic databases, reference lists of retrieved articles and guideline stakeholder submissions in conjunction with the development of a forthcoming national UK guideline. Risk factors and findings were extracted in a concise tabular overview and studies synthesized narratively.

Eleven studies were identified that met inclusion criteria: two case-control studies, four cohort studies, three studies combining a cohort with a case-control study design, one case-control and twin study and one cross-sectional survey. The studies looked at a variety of demographic, medical, psychological, social and environmental factors to predict the development of CFS/ME. The existing body of evidence is characterized by factors that were analysed in several studies but without replication of a significant association in more than two studies, and by studies demonstrating significant associations of specific factors that were not assessed in other studies. None of the identified factors appear suitable for the timely identification of patients at risk of developing CFS/ME within clinical practice.

Various potential risk factors for the development of CFS/ME have been assessed but definitive evidence that appears meaningful for clinicians is lacking.

Personality disorder (PD) in psychosis is poorly studied. As PD can affect outcome in mental disorders, it is important to understand its prevalence in order to plan services, understand prognosis more fully and maximize management options.

Literature searching revealed 3972 potential papers. Twenty papers including 6345 patients were included in the final analysis. There was great variation in prevalence and multilevel modelling was used to identify possible reasons for this heterogeneity.

The prevalence of PD varied from 4.5% to 100%. Multilevel analysis suggested country of study, study type, the instruments used to diagnose PD and patient care correlated with the prevalence data explaining the study level heterogeneity, with 34.2, 33.4, 17.0 and 4.5% by each variable respectively. Personality studies in Canada and Sweden reported lower PD prevalence, whereas in Spain it was higher than the multinational study. Compared with randomized controlled trials, case-control studies reported lower prevalence [odds ratio (OR)=0.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.15–0.79] and observational studies higher prevalence (OR 70.5, 95% CI 8.5–583). Primary-care patients were less likely to be diagnosed (OR 0.02, 95% CI 0–0.19) than hospital patients, and out-patients had higher prevalence (OR 12.5, 95% CI 1.77–88.6).

The reported prevalence of PD in schizophrenia varies significantly. Statistical modelling suggests care, country, study type and diagnostic tools for PD all bias prevalence rates. The number of papers reaching the inclusion criteria, the relative paucity of information and the difficulties in developing an accurate statistical model limited interpretation from the study.

Although empirical support for the efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) as a treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) is well established, its mechanism of action is uncertain. In this investigation, we examined evidence for the cognitive mediational model in a randomized control trial involving CBT, interpersonal therapy (IPT) and pharmacotherapy (PHT) in patients with MDD.

One hundred and thirty participants diagnosed with MDD were treated with CBT, IPT or PHT. Participants completed the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Beck Depression Inventory – II and Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale prior to and following treatment.

The cognitive mediational model, in which dysfunctional attitudes are proposed to mediate depressive symptom reduction in response to treatment, provided a good fit to the data when contrasting CBT v. IPT, with results supporting a mediational role for dysfunctional attitude change in depressive symptom reduction. The complication model, in which dysfunctional attitudes are proposed to be a consequence of depressive symptom reduction, provided a good fit to the data when contrasting CBT v. PHT, with results supporting a mediational role for depressive symptom reduction in dysfunctional attitude change.

There was no evidence for a mediational role for dysfunctional attitude change in IPT. Changes in dysfunctional attitudes accompanied both CBT and PHT; however, empirical evidence suggests that the role of attitudes in treatment outcome may differ between these two treatments.

Living kidney donation to a loved one has become common practice. Another type of living donation that is becoming more acceptable to the transplant community is ‘Samaritan donation’. Samaritan kidney donors are willing to donate to patients they do not know. Until recently there has been great reluctance to accept the offers of Samaritan donors because it was feared that these donors might be mentally unstable.

The purpose of this article is to review the literature about the psychological evaluation of potential Samaritan kidney donors for donor suitability. We have performed a systematic literature search in Pubmed, ISI Web of Science and PsycINFO. We compare and discuss how each study approaches the question about Samaritan donor selection. In addition, we have also screened the studies for reports of rejections of Samaritan donors on psychological grounds.

We have found five articles that at least in some detail describe the evaluation of potential Samaritan donors. For all five articles found, a consultation with either a psychiatrist or a psychologist formed a standard part of the donor evaluation procedure. This evaluation consisted of an interview, and in most instances, additional psychometric testing. According to the articles found, the two major criteria for donor rejection were psychopathology/psychological instability and motivational issues. Three studies reported on the rejection of potential donors on psychological grounds.

The evaluation of Samaritan kidney donors is a developing field in clinical medicine. Given the relatively low incidence of these types of donations, we recommend the exchange of experience between centres that run a Samaritan donor programme, in order to improve donor evaluation criteria.

Despite heightened awareness of the clinical significance of social phobia, information is still lacking about putative subtypes, functional impairment, and treatment-seeking. New epidemiologic data on these topics are presented from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R).

The NCS-R is a nationally representative household survey fielded in 2001–2003. The World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview Version 3.0 (CIDI 3.0) was used to assess 14 performance and interactional fears and DSM-IV social phobia.

The estimated lifetime and 12-month prevalence of social phobia are 12.1% and 7.1% respectively. Performance and interactional fears load onto a single latent factor, and there is little evidence for distinct subtypes based either on the content or the number of fears. Social phobia is associated with significant psychiatric co-morbidity, role impairment, and treatment-seeking, all of which have a dose–response relationship with number of social fears. However, social phobia is the focus of clinical attention in only about half of cases where treatment is obtained. Among non-co-morbid cases, those with the most fears were least likely to receive social phobia treatment.

Social phobia is a common, under-treated disorder that leads to significant functional impairment. Increasing numbers of social fears are associated with increasingly severe manifestations of the disorder.

The psychological aftermath of the Chernobyl accident is regarded as the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date. Yet the mental health of the clean-up workers, who faced the greatest radiation exposure and threat to life, has not been systematically evaluated. This study describes the long-term psychological effects of Chernobyl in a sample of clean-up workers in Ukraine.

The cohorts were 295 male clean-up workers sent to Chernobyl between 1986 and 1990 interviewed 18 years after the accident (71% participation rate) and 397 geographically matched controls interviewed as part of the Ukraine World Mental Health (WMS) Survey 16 years after the accident. The World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) was administered. We examined group differences in common psychiatric disorders, suicide ideation and severe headaches, differential effects of disorder on days lost from work, and in the clean-up workers, the relationship of exposure severity to disorder and current trauma and somatic symptoms. Analyses were adjusted for age in 1986 and mental health prior to the accident.

Relatively more clean-up workers than controls experienced depression (18.0% v. 13.1%) and suicide ideation (9.2% v. 4.1%) after the accident. In the year preceding interview, the rates of depression (14.9% v. 7.1%), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (4.1% v. 1.0%) and headaches (69.2% v. 12.4%) were elevated. Affected workers lost more work days than affected controls. Exposure level was associated with current somatic and PTSD symptom severity.

Long-term mental health consequences of Chernobyl were observed in clean-up workers.

Stress is postulated to play an essential role in the expression of core borderline symptoms. However, the phenomenology of stress reactivity in borderline personality disorder remains unclear. The current study investigated the phenomenology of stress sensitivity in borderline personality disorder in the flow of daily life and compared this with stress sensitivity in patients suffering from psychotic disorders, a group so far known to report the largest reactivity to stress.

A total of 44 borderline patients, 42 patients with psychotic disorder and 49 healthy controls were studied with the Experience Sampling Method (a structured diary technique assessing current context and mood in daily life) to assess: (1) appraised subjective stress related to daily events and activities; and (2) emotional reactivity conceptualized as changes in positive and negative affect.

Multilevel regression analysis revealed that subjects with borderline personality disorder experienced significantly more emotional reactivity to daily life stress compared with both patients with psychosis and healthy controls, as evidenced by a larger increase in negative affect and a larger decrease in positive affect following stress.

These results are the first to ecologically validate the incorporation of stress reactive symptoms in the diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. Borderline patients continually react stronger than patients with psychosis and healthy controls to small disturbances that continually happen in the natural flow of everyday life. Altered emotional stress reactivity may define borderline personality disorder.

This review systematically appraised the research evidence for local versus global information processing to test the hypothesis that people with eating disorders (ED) had weak central coherence.

Searches on Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO and ISI Web of Science databases were conducted in November 2006 and subsequently updated in September 2007. Each search was conducted in two steps: (1) neuropsychological tasks measuring central coherence and (2) words related to cognitive functioning in eating disorders. Data were summarized in a meta-analysis if the number of studies for a given test was >5.

Data were extracted from 16 studies. Meta-analyses were conducted for four tasks obtaining moderate effect sizes. The majority of studies found global processing difficulties across the ED spectrum. The results are less clear regarding local processing.

People with ED have difficulties in global processing. It is less certain as to whether they have superior local processing. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to refute the weak central coherence hypothesis.

Social capital has been considered aetiologically important in schizophrenia but the empirical evidence to support this hypothesis is absent. We tested whether social capital, measured at the neighbourhood level, was associated with the incidence of schizophrenia (ICD-10 F20).

We administered a cross-sectional questionnaire on social capital to 5% of the adult population in 33 neighbourhoods (wards) in South London (n=16 459). The questionnaire contained items relating to two social capital constructs: social cohesion and trust (SC&T) and social disorganization (SocD). Schizophrenia incidence rates, estimated using data from the Aetiology and Ethnicity in Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses (AESOP) study, provided the outcome. We used multi-level Poisson regression to test our hypothesis while controlling for individual- and neighbourhood-level characteristics.

We identified 148 cases during 565 576 person-years at-risk. Twenty-six per cent of the variation in incidence rates was attributable to neighbourhood-level characteristics. Response from the social capital survey was 25.7%. The association between SC&T and schizophrenia was U-shaped. Compared with neighbourhoods with medial levels of SC&T, incidence rates were significantly higher in neighbourhoods with low [incidence rates ratio (IRR) 2.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2–3.3] and high (IRR 2.5, 95% CI 1.3–4.8) levels of SC&T, independent of age, sex, ethnicity, ethnic density, ethnic fragmentation and socio-economic deprivation.

Neighbourhood variation in SC&T was non-linearly associated with the incidence of schizophrenia within an urban area. Neighbourhoods with low SC&T may fail to mediate social stress whereas high SC&T neighbourhoods may have greater informal social control or may increase the risk of schizophrenia for residents excluded from accessing available social capital.

Psychotic disorders are more common in people from ethnic minorities. If psychosis exists as a continuous phenotype, ethnic disparities in psychotic disorder will be accompanied by similar ethnic disparities in the rate of psychotic symptoms. This study examined ethnic disparities in self-reported hallucinations in a population sample of young adults.

A cross-sectional population survey (n=2258) was carried out in the south-west Netherlands. Seven ethnic groups were delineated: Dutch natives, Turks, Moroccans, Surinamese/Antilleans, Indonesians, other non-Western immigrants (mostly from Africa or Asia) and Western immigrants (mostly from Western Europe). Self-reported auditory and visual hallucinations were assessed with the Adult Self-Report (ASR). Indicators of social adversity included social difficulties and a significant drop in financial resources.

Compared to Dutch natives, Turkish females [odds ratio (OR) 13.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.97–30.42], Moroccan males (OR 8.36, 95% CI 3.29–21.22), Surinamese/Antilleans (OR 2.19, 95% CI 1.05–4.58), Indonesians (OR 4.15, 95% CI 1.69–10.19) and other non-Western immigrants (OR 3.57, 95% CI 1.62–7.85) were more likely to report hallucinations, whereas Western immigrants, Turkish males and Moroccan females did not differ from their Dutch counterparts. When adjusting for social adversity, the ORs for self-reported hallucinations among the non-Western immigrant groups showed considerable reductions of 28% to 52%.

In a general population sample, several non-Western immigrant groups reported hallucinations more often than Dutch natives, which is consistent with the higher incidence of psychotic disorders in most of these groups. The associations between ethnicity and hallucinations diminished after adjustment for social adversity, which supports the view that adverse social experiences contribute to the higher rate of psychosis among migrants.

Deficits in theory of mind (ToM), or the ability to infer what another person is thinking or feeling, have been reported in manic and euthymic adults with bipolar disorder. To date, there have been no investigations of ToM in pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD). The aim of the current study was to investigate this ability in PBD patients and healthy controls.

PBD patients (n=26) and intellectually and demographically similar healthy comparison subjects (n=20) were administered two ToM tasks. In the Affective Story Task, subjects were read positive-, negative- and neutral-valenced stories, and were assessed on their ability to recognize that a misleading series of events could lead one character to develop a false belief about another character. On the Hinting Task, subjects were required to infer the real intentions behind subtle hints.

The PBD group performed significantly more poorly than controls on the Hinting Task and the positive and negative conditions of the Affective Story Task. In the PBD group only, younger age, earlier illness onset and manic symptoms were associated with poorer ToM performance.

Consistent with past findings in adult bipolar disorder (BD), PBD youth performed more poorly than controls on ToM tasks. Data suggest that ToM ability may be more impaired in affectively charged contexts. Additionally, an earlier onset of illness among PBD youth may interfere with the development of social-cognitive skills. ToM disturbances may be a useful treatment target in PBD, with the aim of facilitating more accurate assessment of social cues and better interpersonal functioning.

Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have partly overlapping clinical profiles, which include an over-representation of substance-use behaviour. There are few previous studies directly comparing substance-use patterns in the two disorders. The objective of the present study was to compare the prevalence of substance use in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and investigate possible differences in pattern and frequency of use.

A total of 336 patients with schizophrenia or bipolar spectrum disorder from a catchment area-based hospital service were included in a cross-sectional study. In addition to thorough clinical assessments, patients were interviewed about drug-use history, habits and patterns of use. The prevalence and drug-use patterns were compared between groups.

Patients with bipolar disorder had higher rates of alcohol consumption, while schizophrenia patients more often used centrally stimulating substances, had more frequent use of non-alcoholic drugs and more often used more than one non-alcoholic drug. Single use of cannabis was more frequent in bipolar disorder.

The present study showed diagnosis-specific patterns of substance use in severe mental disorder. This suggests a need for more disease-specific treatment strategies, and indicates that substance use may be an important factor in studies of overlapping disease mechanisms.

The overlap between anxiety and major depressive disorder (MDD), the increased risk for depression and anxiety in offspring of depressed parents, the sequence of onset with anxiety preceding MDD, and anxiety as a predictor of depression are well established. The specificity of anxiety disorders in these relationships is unclear. This study, using a longitudinal high-risk design, examined whether anxiety disorders associated with the emotions fear and anxiety mediate the association between parental and offspring depression.

Two hundred and twenty-four second-generation and 155 third-generation descendants at high and low risk for depression because of MDD in the first generation were interviewed over 20 years. Probit and Cox proportional hazard models were fitted with generation 2 (G2) or G3 depression as the outcome and parental MDD as the predictor. In G2 and G3, fear- (phobia or panic) and anxiety-related [overanxious or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)] disorders were examined as potential mediators of increased risk for offspring depression, due to parental MDD.

In G2, fear-related disorders met criteria for mediating the association between parental MDD and offspring MDD whereas anxiety-related disorders did not. These results were consistent, regardless of the analytic methods used. Further investigation of the mediating effect of fear-related disorders by age of onset of offspring MDD suggests that the mediating effect occurs primarily in adolescent onset MDD. The results for G3 appear to follow similar patterns.

These findings support the separation of anxiety disorders into at least two distinct forms, particularly when examining their role in the etiology of depression.