Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T13:24:43.500Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pathogen Proliferation: Threats from the Former Soviet Bioweapons Complex

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Kathleen M. Vogel
Kathleen M. Vogel*
Affiliation:
Cornell University, USA

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This article outlines the proliferation threats of pathogen collections from the former Soviet biological weapons (BW) program and the inherent difficulties in safeguarding sensitive biological materials. It describes new U.S. government efforts to improve security conditions of these collections through the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program. Finally, the article analyzes these U.S. programs and offers additional policy recommendations to reduce the proliferation threat from these dangerous pathogens.

Type
Biological Weapons
Information
Politics and the Life Sciences , Volume 19 , Issue 1 , March 2000 , pp. 3 - 16
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

References

Alibek, K. (1998). “Terrorist and Intelligence Operations: Potential Impact on the U.S. Economy.” Statement before the Joint Economic Committee, United States Congress, May 20, http://www.house.gov/jec/hearings/intell/alibek.htm.Google Scholar
Alibek, K., Handelman, with S. (1999). Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Barletta, M. and Ellington, C. (1998) “Iraq's Biological Weapons Program.” Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Available athttp://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/flow/iraq/seed.htm. January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
Becka, H. (1998). “20 Year Sentence Given in Taintings. Woman Gives Tearful Apology for Sickening Workers, Ex-Boyfriend.” Dallas Morning News. September 12: 37A.Google Scholar
Ben Ouagrham, S. (2000). “Conversion of Russian CWPFs: Unique aspects of the CWC and Proliferation Risks due to a Failed Conversion.” The Nonproliferation Review 7 (Summer):44–62.Google Scholar
Bozheyeva, G., Kunakbayev, Y., and Yeleukenov, D. (1999). Former Soviet Biological Weapons Facilities in Kazakhstan: Past, Present, and Future. Occasional Paper No. 1. Monterey: Monterey Institute of International Studies, June.Google Scholar
Broad, W.J. and Miller, J. (1999). “Government Report says 3 Nations Hide Stocks of Smallpox.” The New York Times. June 13: A1.Google Scholar
Brock, T.D. et al. (1994). Biology of Microorganisms. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Brown, D. (1999). “Destruction of Smallpox Stocks is Reassessed; Some Suspect Virus Also Exists in Secret.” The Washington Post. March 15: p. A.1Google Scholar
Bunn, M. (2000). The Next Wave: Urgently Needed New Steps to Control Warhead and Fissile Material. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Harvard University, March: 81–88.Google Scholar
Carus, W.S. (1999). “Unlawful Acquisition and Use of Biological Agent.” In Lederberg, J. (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Committee on the Assessment of Future Scientific Needs for Live Variola Virus, Board on Global Health, Institute of Medicine (1999). Assessment of Future Scientific Needs for Live Variola Virus. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Dahlburg, J.T. (1992). “Russia Admits it Violated Pact on Biological Warfare.” Los Angeles Times. September 15: A1.Google Scholar
Davis, C. (1998). Interview with Christopher Davis. In “Plague War,” Frontline 1706, Public Broadcasting System. Aired October 13, 1998. Available athttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plague/interviews/davis.html.Google Scholar
Domaradskiy, I. (1996). “The History of One Risky Venture.” Part II, Znaniye-Sila. Unpublished manuscript, translated by Yankulin, V., December. Made available to the author by Milton Leitenberg.Google Scholar
Dynamic Corporation (1990). Supplement to the Draft Environmental Impact Statement: Biological Aerosol Test Facility. New Alternative Action to Construct and Operate a Consolidated Life Sciences Test Facility at Dugway Proving Ground, Utah. Dugway: Department of the Army, Dugway Proving Ground, November.Google Scholar
Erlick, B.J. (1990) U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Spread of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Assessing Challenges and Responses. 101st Congress, 1st session, February 9, 1989, Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Ferguson, J.R. (1999). “Biological Weapons and U.S. Law.” In Lederberg, J. (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Franz, D. et al. (1999). “Clinical Recognition and Management of Patients Exposed to Biological Warfare Agents.” In Lederberg, J. (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Frazier, T.W. and Richardson, D.C., eds. (1999). Food and Agricultural Security: Guarding Against Natural Threats and Terrorist Attacks Affecting Health, National Food Supplies, and Agricultural Economics. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Fry, R.M. (1954). “The Preservation of Bacteria.” In Harris, R.J.C. (ed.), Biological Applications of Freezing and Drying. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Geissler, E. and Brunius, G. (1990). “Information on High-Risk Laboratories.” In Geissler, E. (ed.), Strengthening the Biological Weapons Convention by Confidence-Building Measures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gertz, B. (1998). “Yeltsin Orders Probe of Security for Nukes.” Washington Times. October 21.Google Scholar
Harris, R.J.C. (1954). “The Preservation of Viruses.” In Harris, R.J.C. (ed.), Biological Applications of Freezing and Drying. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Henderson, D.A. (1998). “Bioterrorism as a Public Health Threat.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 4 (July-September):488.Google Scholar
International Science and Technology Centers (ISTC) (2000). “National Virus Collection.” ISTC Project 0622. Available athttp://www.istc.ru/istc/website.nsf/fm/Projects+by+number+Active. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
“Joint Statement on Biological Weapons by the Governments of the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Russian Federation” (1992). September 10–11. Available athttp://www.stimson.org/cwc/trilats.htm. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
Katsva, M. and Averre, D. (1999). “Chemical and Biological Weapons Export Controls.” In Bertsch, G.K. and Potter, W.C. (eds.), Dangerous Weapons, Desperate States: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kolavic, S.A. et al. (1999). “An Outbreak of Shigella dysentariae Type 2 Among Laboratory Workers Due to Intentional Food Contamination.” In Lederberg, J. (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Leitenberg, M. (1994) “The Conversion of Biological Warfare Research and Development Facilities to Peaceful Uses.” In Geissler, E. and Woodall, J.P. (eds.), Control of Dual-Threat Agents: The Vaccines for Peace Programme. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leitenberg, M. (1998). “The Possibilities and Limitations of Biological Weapons Conversion.” In Geissler, E. (ed.), Conversion of Former BTW Facilities. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Leitenberg, M. (1999). “Aum Shinrikyo's Efforts to Produce Biological Weapons: A Case Study in the Serial Propagation of Misinformation.” Terrorism and Political Violence 11:149–158.Google Scholar
Levitt, N.H. (1988). “Testimony of Neil H. Levitt, Ph.D., Former Research Scientist, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID).” Hearings before the Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management of the Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 2nd Session, July 27–28, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Litovkin, D. (1999). “Valentin Yevstigneyev on Issues Relating to Russian Biological Weapons.” Yaderny Kontrol 11 (Summer). Available athttp://www.pircenter.org/yke/messages/78.html. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
Mangold, T. and Goldberg, J. (1999). Plague Wars. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
McWethy, J. (1999). “Bin Laden Set to Strike Again?” ABC News broadcast, June 16, 1999. Available athttp://www.abcnews.go.com/onair/WorldNewsTonight/wnt990616_binladen.html.Google Scholar
Miller, J. (1999a). “At Bleak Asian Site, Killer Germs Survive.” The New York Times, June 2.Google Scholar
Miller, J. (1999b). “U.S. Would Use Long Island Lab to Study Food Terrorism.” The New York Times. September 22, p. A1.Google Scholar
Miller, J. and Broad, W.J. (1998a). “Iranians, Bioweapons in Mind, Lure Needy Ex-Soviet Scientists.” The New York Times. December 8: A1.Google Scholar
Miller, J. and Broad, W.J. (1998b). “Dollars are Weapon of Choice in the War on Bacteria Peril.” The New York Times. December 8: A1.Google Scholar
National Academy of Sciences (1997). Controlling Dangerous Pathogens: A Blueprint for U.S.-Russian Cooperation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Nikonorov, N. (1995). “Roundtable on Financial, Other Problems of Science Cities.” Rossiyskaya Gazeta (January 19). In World News Connection, Document Number FBIS-SOV-95-018-S (drsov018_s95012). Available athttp://wnc.fedworld.gov/cgi-bin/retrieve.cgi?IOI=FBIS_clear&docname=Odiampk04azbz4&CID=C169189453125000140879185.Google Scholar
Odnokolenko, O. (1999). “Khattab Wants to Teach Russia Biology Lesson. Special Services Will be Looking for Broth Instead of Hexogen.” Segodnya (October 23):2. Available as FBIS document MS251015089.Google Scholar
Office of the Coordinator of U.S. Assistance to the NIS (1999). U.S. Government Assistance to and Cooperative Activities with the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union, FY 1998 Annual Report (January): 176–177.Google Scholar
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1997a). “Central Collection of Microorganisms of State Research Center for Applied Microbiology.” The OECD Megascience Forum. Unique Research Facilities in Russia 2. Available athttp://www.oecd.Org/dsti/sti/s_t/ms/prod/russia/1ch6.htm. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1997b). “P-4 Biocontainment Virological Laboratory Experimental Building.” The OECD Megascience Forum. Unique Research Facilities in Russia 2. Available athttp://www.oecd.org/dsti/sti/s_t/ms/prod/russia/1ch1.htm. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
Orlov, V.A. (1999). “Export Controls in Russia: Policies and Practices.” The Nonproliferation Review 6 (Fall): 139–151.Google Scholar
Papyrin, A. (1996). “Interview with Director of Volgograd Antiplague Scientific Research Institute.” Meditsinskaya Gazeta (January 17):5. Available as FBIS document FTS19960117001729.Google Scholar
Perry, T. (1999). “Security Russian Nuclear Materials: The Need for An Expanded US Response.” The Nonproliferation Review 6 (Winter):84–97.Google Scholar
Potter, W.C. (1997). “Project Sapphire: U.S.-Kazakhstani Cooperation for Nonproliferation.” In Shields, J.M. and Potter, W.C. (eds.), Dismantling the Cold War: US and NIS Perspectives on the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Potter, W.C. and Wehling, F. L. (2000). “Sustainable Nuclear Material Security in Russia: Commitment, Consolidation, and Culture.” The Nonproliferation Review 7 (Spring): 180–188.Google Scholar
Prokhorov, B. (1996). “Stavropol Anti-Plague Institute Threatened With Closure.” Komsomolskaya Pravda (February 27): 1. Available as FBIS document FTS19960227000778.Google Scholar
Proom, H. and Hemmons, L.M. (1949). “The Drying and Preservation of Bacterial Cultures.” Journal of General Microbiology 3:7–18.Google Scholar
Reiss, M. (1995). Bridled Ambition. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Rhoades, H.E. (1970). “Effects of 20 Years' Storage on Lyophilized Cultures of Bacteria, Molds, Viruses, and Yeasts.” American Journal of Veterinary Research 31:1867–70.Google Scholar
Rimmington, A. (1996). “From Military to Industrial Complex? The Conversion of Biological Weapons' Facilities in the Russian Federation.” Contemporary Security Policy 17 (April):80–112.Google Scholar
Rimmington, A. (1998). “Conversion of BW Facilities in Kazakhstan.” In Geissler, E., Gazso, L., and Buder, E. (eds.), Conversion of Former BTW Facilities. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Rimmington, A. (1999). “Fragmentation and Proliferation? The Fate of the Soviet Union's Offensive Biological Weapons Programme.” Contemporary Security Policy 20 (April):86–110.Google Scholar
Rimmington, A. (2000). “Invisible Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Soviet Union's BW Programme and its Implications for Contemporary Arms Control.” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 13 (September): 1–46.Google Scholar
Roth, J.A., ed. (1988). Virulence Mechanisms of Bacterial Pathogens. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology.Google Scholar
Russian-American Nuclear Security Advisory Council (2000). Russian Nuclear Security and the Clinton Administration's Fiscal Year 2000 Expanded Threat Reduction Initiative: A Summary of Congressional Action. Washington, DC: RANSAC, February.Google Scholar
“Russian Biomedical Research Threatened by Lack of Funding” (1996). In FBIS document FTS19960304000821, March 4.Google Scholar
Sandakhchiev, L.S. (1998). “The Need for International Cooperation To Provide Transparency and to Strengthen the BTWC.” In Geissler, E., Gazso, L., and Buder, E. (eds.), Conversion of Former BTW Facilities. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Sandakhchiev, L.S. et al. (1999). “National Collection of Variola Virus.” Poster presented at Assessment of Sponsored Biological Research in Russia for the New Millennium. NATO Advanced Research Workshop, September 2–4, Novosibirsk, Russia, http://www.vector.nsc.ru//conf0999/posters/sandakh/sandakh.htm.Google Scholar
Sharov, A. (1996). “Antiplague Institutes Lack Funds for Disease Control.” Rossiyskaya Gazeta (June 21):28. In World News Connection, Document number FBIS-TEN-96-009 (fbten009_96189). Available athttp://wnc.fedworld.gov/cgi-bin/retrieve.cgi?IOI=FBIS_clear&docname=0dy1vse0407n4m&CID=C639068603515625184666333.Google Scholar
Simpson, D.I.H. and Zuckerman, A.J. (1975). “Lassa By Letter.” The Lancet 2 (11 October):701–702.Google Scholar
Sims, N.A. (1990). “The Second Review Conference on the Biological Weapons Convention.” In Wright, S. (ed.), Preventing a Biological Arms Race. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Smith, R.J. (1992). “Yeltsin Blames '79 Anthrax on Germ Warfare Efforts.” The Washington Post. June 16.Google Scholar
Smithson, A.E. (1999). Toxic Archipelago: Preventing Proliferation from the Former Soviet Chemical and Biological Weapons Complexes. Report No. 32. Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center, December.Google Scholar
State System for Sanitation-Epidemiological Standardization of the Russian Federation (1994). Federal Sanitation Regulations, Norms and Hygiene Standards, 1.2 Epidemiology. Safety in Working with Group I and II Pathogenicity Microorganisms. Sanitation Regulations, SP 1.2.011-94. Moscow: Russian State Committee for Sanitation and Epidemiological Oversight.Google Scholar
Steel, K.J. and Ross, H.E. (1963). “Survival of Freeze Dried Bacterial Cultures.” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 26:370–375.Google Scholar
Thorne, C.B. (1960). “Biochemical Properties of Virulent and Avirulent Strains of Bacillus Anthracis. In Braun, W. (ed.), Biochemical Aspects of Microbial Pathogenicity. New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (November 21) 88:1024–1033.Google Scholar
Tucker, J.B. (1999a). “Biological Weapons in the Former Soviet Union: An Interview with Dr. Kenneth Alibek.” The Nonproliferation Review 6 (Spring-Summer): 1–10.Google Scholar
Tucker, J.B. (1999b). “Bioweapons from Russia: Stemming the Flow.” Issues in Science and Technology 15 (Spring):34–38.Google Scholar
United Nations (1972). Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological Biological and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. Available athttp://www.stimson.org/cwc/bwctext.htm.Google Scholar
U.S. Congress (1999). House. “The Threat of Bioterrorism in America: Assessing the Adequacy of the Federal Law Relating to Dangerous Biological Agents.” Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Commerce, House of Representatives, 106th Congress, First Session, 20 May, Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Defense (1994). “Russian Biological Warfare Technology.” May. Available at the website of the Federation of American Scientists athttp://www.trufax.org/gulfwar/95071934.txt. Accessed January 10, 2000.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services et al. (1999). Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
U.S. General Accounting Office (1999). Combating Terrorism: Need for Comprehensive Threat and Risk Assessments of Chemical and Biological Attacks. GAO/NSIAD-99-16. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.Google Scholar
U.S. General Accounting Office (2000a). Nuclear Nonproliferation: Limited Progress in Improving Nuclear Material Security in Russia and the Newly Independent States, GAO/RCED/NSIAD-00-82. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.Google Scholar
U.S. General Accounting Office (2000b). Biological Weapons: Effort to Reduce Former Soviet Threat Offers Benefits, Poses New Risks. GAO/NSIAD-00-138. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.Google Scholar