Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T15:55:27.934Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Faith-based Diplomacy: Conservative Evangelicals and the United States Military

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 September 2013

Lee Marsden
Lee Marsden*
Affiliation:
University of East Anglia
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Lee Marsden, University of East Anglia Norwich, Norfolk, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Religion is becoming an increasingly important factor for theorists and policy makers alike in the consideration of United States foreign policy. In recent years a new school of faith-based diplomacy advocacy has emerged and begun to resonate with foreign policy practitioners. This article examines the efficacy of such faith-based approaches to foreign policy problems with a religious component and argues that such an approach is inherently flawed. The article argues that a combination of a distinct military culture, which feels itself morally superior to its civilian leadership and the activism of conservative evangelicals in the chaplaincy and military leadership makes such faith-based approaches unrealistic. While acknowledging a role for pluralist religious actors in foreign policy the article rejects a faith-based advocacy approach which can exacerbate rather than resolve foreign policy problems.

Type
Articles
Information
Politics and Religion , Volume 7 , Issue 3 , September 2014 , pp. 475 - 498
Copyright
Copyright © Religion and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adams, G. 2006. Chaplains as Liaisons with Religious Leaders: Lessons from Iraq and Afghanistan. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Albright, M. 2006. The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs. New York, NY: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Al Jazeera . 2009. US Army “Does Not Promote Religion.” Al Jazeera. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/05/2009542250178146.html (Accessed on May 6, 2011).Google Scholar
Al Jazeera . 2010. “Bible Codes on Army Afghan Guns.” Al Jazeera. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/01/20101211239216652.html (Accessed on August 29, 2011].Google Scholar
Allen, B. 2009. “Top Army Chaplain Raises Jewish Ire with Call for Fasting During Passover.” Associated Baptist Press. http://www.militaryreligiousfreedom.org/press-releases/abp_chaplain.html (Accessed on February 7, 2011).Google Scholar
Allsep, M., Levy, D., and Parco, J.. 2011. “The Culture War Within.” Armed Forces Journal, January/February, 28–31.Google Scholar
Bacevich, A. 2010. “Endless War, a Recipe for Four-Star Arrogance.” Washington Post, June 27.Google Scholar
Banerjee, N. 2008. “Religion and Its Role are in Dispute at the Service Academies.” New York Times, June 25.Google Scholar
Beaumont, P. 2007. “Providing a Place of Sanctuary and Solace for the Faithful on the Frontline.” The Guardian, February 21.Google Scholar
Beliefnet . 2003. “Evangelical Views of Islam.” http://www.beliefnet.com/News/Politics/2003/04/Evangelical-Views-Of-Islam.aspx (Accessed on August 26, 2011).Google Scholar
Brady, J. 2005a. “Air Force Academy Embroiled in Religious Controversy.” National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4676698&ps=rs (Accessed on March 13, 2010).Google Scholar
Brady, J. 2005b. “Evangelical Chaplains Test Bounds of Faith in Ministry.” National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4772331 (Accessed on February 15, 2010).Google Scholar
Brinsfield, J. 2009a. “The U.S. Military Chaplaincy, Then and Now.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs 7:17–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinsfield, J. 2009b. “The Army Chaplaincy and World Religions: From Individual Ministry to Chaplain Corps Doctrine.” The Army Chaplaincy (Winter-Spring).Google Scholar
Chaudhry, S. 2011. “Interview – Iraq's al Qaeda Focused on Christian Attacks – US. 6 January 2011 Reuters' interview with Lt. Gen. Robert Cone, US Deputy Commanding General for operations in Iraq.” http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE7051LR20110106 (Accessed on August 29, 2011).Google Scholar
Croft, S. 2007. “Thy Will be Done: The New Foreign Policy of America's Christian Right.” International Politics 44:692–671.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, S. 2009. “Christian Evangelicals and US Foreign Policy.” In New Directions in US Foreign Policy, eds. Parmar, I., Miller, I., and Ledwidge, M.. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Durham, M. 2004. “Evangelical Protestantism and Foreign Policy in the United States after September 11.” Patterns of Prejudice 38:145–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durward, R., and Marsden, L. eds. 2009. Religion, Conflict and Military Intervention. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.Google Scholar
Fox, J. 2004. Bringing Religion into International Relations. Basingstoke: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodstein, L. 2005. “Evangelicals are Growing Force in the Military Chaplaincy Corps.” New York Times, July 12.Google Scholar
Grant, P. 2010. “The Need for (More) New Guidance Regarding Religious Expression in the Air Force.” In Attitudes Aren't Free: Thinking Deeply About Diversity in the US Armed Forces, eds. Parco, P., and Levy, D.. eds. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press.Google Scholar
Griffin, L. 2009. “Strategic Religious Dialogue: A Chaplain's Perspective on Religious Leader Liaison.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs, 7:71–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutkowski, S. 2013. “Religion and Security in International relations Theories.” In The Routledge Handbook of religion and Security, eds. Seiple, C., Hoover, D., and Otis, P.. Abingdon: Routledge, 125–131.Google Scholar
Habermas, J. 2010. “An Awareness of What is Missing.” In An Awareness of What is Missing: Faith and Reason in a Post-Secular Age, eds. Habermas, J., et al. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, J. 2011. “‘The Political’: The Rational Meaning of a Questionable Inheritance of Political Theology.” In The Power of Religion in the Public Sphere, eds. Butler, J., Habermas, J., Taylor, C., and West, C.. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Haynes, J. 2007. Introduction to International Relations and Religion. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Hedges, C. 2007. “Americas Holy Warriors.” Truthdig. http://www.alternet.org/story/46211 (Accessed on February 1, 2011).Google Scholar
Hoover, D. 2009. “For God and Country.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs, 7:1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, D., Seiple, C., and Otis, P.. eds. 2012. The Routledge Handbook of Religion and Security: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge Google Scholar
Huntington, S. 1957. The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Ciovil-Military Relations. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, D., and Sampson, C.. eds. 1994. Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, D. ed. 2003. Faith-Based Diplomacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, D., and Cox, B.. 2003. “Faith-Based Diplomacy and Preventive Engagemen.” In Faith-Based Diplomacy, ed. Johnston, D. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, D. 2005. “Religion, Conflict, Parochialism and reconciliation.” In Diplomacy and Diversity: Religion in International Relations, eds. Ayad, N., and Marshall, P.. London: The Diplomatic Academy of London Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, D. 2009. “U.S. Military Chaplains: Redirecting a Critical Asset.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs, 7:25–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, D. 2011. Religion, Terror, and Error: US Foreign Policy and the Challenge of Spiritual Engagement. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jonsson, P. 2010. “Trijicon Sights: How the ‘Jesus Gun’ Misfired.” Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2010/0122/Trijicon-sights-How-the-Jesus-gun-misfired (Accessed on August 29, 2011).Google Scholar
Jordan, B. 2008. “Petraeus Book ‘Endorsement’ Draws Fire.” Military.com. http://www.military.com/news/article/petraeus-book-endorsement-draws-fire.html (Accessed on February 5, 2010).Google Scholar
Joyce, K. 2009. “Christian Soldiers: The Growing Controversy over Military Chaplains Using the Armed Forces to Spread the Word of God.” Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/202734 (Accessed on February 5, 2010).Google Scholar
JP 1-05. 2009. “Religious Affairs in Joint Operations.” Pentagon. http://www.js.pentagon.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_05.pdf (Accessed on March 13, 2010).Google Scholar
Kaplan, E. 2005. With God on their Side. New York, NY: The New Press.Google Scholar
Layklin, M. 2003. “Water Shortage Works to Chaplain's Advantage.” Miami Herald, April 7.Google Scholar
Lichtblau, E. 2009. “Questions Raised Anew About Religion in Military.” New York Times, March 1.Google Scholar
Mansfield, S. 2006. The Faith of the American Soldier. New York: Tarcher.Google Scholar
Marsden, L. 2006. The Faith of the American Soldier. New York: Tarcher.Google Scholar
Mead, W.R. 2006. “God's Country?” Foreign Affairs, Sept/Oct.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, P. 2002. The Chaplain's Evolving Role in Peace and Humanitarian Relief Operations. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Micklethwaite, J., and Wooldridge, A.. 2010. God is Back: How the Global Rise of Faith is Changing the World. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Murray, W. 1998. “Does Military Culture Matter?” http://fpri.org/americavulnerable/09.DoesMilitaryCultureMatter.Murray.pdf (Accessed on February 8, 2013).Google Scholar
NSC. 2006. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America. Washington, DC: National Security Council.Google Scholar
Obama, B. 2012. “State of the Union Address.” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/25/us/politics/state-of-the-union-2012-transcript.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (Accessed on February 14, 2012).Google Scholar
Otis, P. 2009. “An Overview of the US Military Chaplaincy: A Ministry of Presence and Practice.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs 7:3–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PAC. 2010. A New era of Partnerships: Report of Recommendations to the President. Washington, DC: Office of Faith-based and Neighborhood Partnerships.Google Scholar
Patterson, E. 2011. Politics in a Religious World: Building a Religiously Informed US Foreign Policy. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Petito, F., and Hatzopoulos, P.. eds. 2001. “Special Edition: Religion and International Relations.” Journal of International Studies.Google Scholar
Petito, F., and Hatzopolous, P.. 2004. Religion and International Relations. Basingstoke: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2008. US Religious Landscape Survey. Washington, DC: The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life.Google Scholar
Phillips, K. 2007. American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil and Borrowed Money in the Twenty First Century. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Rennick, J. 2011. Religion in the Ranks; Belief and Religious Experience in the Canadian Forces. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rider, K. 2008. “Iraqis; Marines Try to Convert Muslims.” Military.com. http://www.military.com/news/article/iraqis-marines-try-to-convert-muslims-html (Accessed on August 29, 2011).Google Scholar
Rodda, C. 2009. “Army Chief of Chaplains Promotes Ministry that Called Navy Secretary Satanic.” Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/chris-rodda/army-chief-of-chaplains-p_b_189137.html (Accessed on February 7, 2010).Google Scholar
Rodda, C. 2010. “Against All Enemies, Foreign and Domestic.” In Attitudes Aren't Free: Thinking Deeply About Diversity in the US Armed Forces, eds. Parco, P., and Levy, D.. Maxwell Air Base, AL: Air University Press.Google Scholar
Sandal, N., and James, P.. 2011. “Religion and International Relations Theory: Towards a Mutual Understanding.” European Journal of International Relations, 17:3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schweiker, K. 2006. “Military Chaplains: Federally Funded Fanaticism and the United States Air Force Academy.” Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion, http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/vol8.shtml (Accessed on May 17, 2011).Google Scholar
Scott Appleby, R. 2000. The Ambivalence of the Sacred. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Scott Appleby, R., Cizik, R., et al. 2010. Engaging Religious Communities Abroad: A New Imperative for U.S. Foreign Policy. Chicago, IL: The Chicago Council on Global Affairs.Google Scholar
Seiple, C. 2009. “Ready or Not: Equipping the U.S. Military Chaplain for Inter-Religion Liaison.” The Review of Faith and International Affairs, 7:43–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seiple, R., and Hoover, D. eds. 2004. Religion and Security: The New Nexus in International Relations. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Sharlet, J. 2009. “God Killed Muhammed: The Crusade for a Christian Ministry.” Vanity Fair, http://harpers.org/archive/2009/05/0082488 (Accessed on March 14, 2010).Google Scholar
The Public Record. 2008. “Proselytizing in the Military Likely to Continue Under Obama.” The Public Record. http://pubrecord.org/religion/835/proselytizing-in-the-military-likely-to-continue-under-obama (Accessed on February 17, 2010).Google Scholar
Thomas, S. 2001. “Faith, History and Martin Wight: The Role of Religion in the Historical Sociology of the English School of International Relations.” International Affairs, 4:905–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, S. 2005. The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, T. 2011. “Military Chaplains are Faith Mismatch for Personnel they Serve.” St. Louis Today. http://www.stltoday.com/lifestyles/faith-and-values/article-19c66ee6-82b8-59f7-b3d5-fd3cc05bc538.html (Accessed on January 17, 2011).Google Scholar
Weinstein, M., and Seay, D.. 2006. With God On Our Side: One Man's War Against an Evangelical Coup in America's Military. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne Books.Google Scholar
Weinstein, M. 2008. “Evangelical Christian Missionaries Embedded with American Combat Troops in Afghanistan.” The American Muslim Organization. http://www.theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/evangelical_christian_missionaries_embedded_with_american_combat_troops_in_/ (Accessed on February 7, 2010).Google Scholar
Wrigley, P. 1996. “The Impact of Religious Belief in the Theatre of Operations.” http://www.js.pentagon.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_05.pdf (Accessed on March 13, 2010).Google Scholar
Wunderink, S. 2007. “Not Just Chaplains Parachurch Organizations are Filling in the Gaps Through Ministry to Troops and their Families.” Christianity Today. http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2007/augustweb-only/134-22.0.html (Accessed on February 7, 2010).Google Scholar