Herbert Victor Goddard was second steward on the voyage of SY Aurora under Captain John King Davis, to retrieve Douglas Mawson and the remaining members of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) from Commonwealth Bay in the summer of 1913–14. He kept a previously unpublished diary in pencil. He was on his first and only voyage working at sea and the diary records observations by an optimistic newcomer to the region. It gives the view of the voyage from eyes different from those of the leaders of the expedition, records the daily routine on-board, and documents a few incidents not covered in the formal reports of the expedition.

The selection of sites that comprise the existing network of Antarctic protected areas has been largely ad hoc, driven by national interests rather than concerted efforts to ensure systematic and representative coverage of the Antarctic environment. Consequently there are gaps in coverage of all major ecosystems, in particular areas kept inviolate from human activity, inland lakes, and marine protected areas. Annex V of the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty provides a list of values to be protected within a network of Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs), but provides no quantitative methods for site identification and prioritisation. The Antarctic Important Bird Area (IBA) Inventory is a joint initiative of BirdLife International and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research Group of Experts on Birds (formerly the Bird Biology Subcommittee). The Antarctic IBA Inventory has identified 119 candidate IBAs, 97 of which are not currently protected as ASPAs. The IBA Inventory can improve the Antarctic Protected Area System (PAS) in that it provides a method by which to identify and prioritise sites for their potential inclusion in the Antarctic PAS.

The planning and direction of the British government's efforts to find and rescue Sir John Franklin were carried out in the Admiralty offices on Whitehall by the Board of Admiralty, which comprised six Lords Commissioners and two Secretaries, subject to the ultimate authority of Parliament. The Board worked closely with the Navy's Hydrographer, Francis Beaufort, who was probably the single most influential person involved in the planning. He and the Board utilized advice from various officers who had been on Arctic expeditions, and consulted many organizations and individuals in Britain and abroad on particular aspects of the search.

Eduard Dallmann, of Blumenthal on the lower Weser, went to sea at the age of 15 in 1845. He took command of his first ship, the whaling vessel Planet, in 1859 on a whaling voyage to the sperm whaling grounds in the Pacific and to the Sea of Okhotsk. Over the period 1864–66 he commanded the Hawaiian vessel W.C. Talbot on trading voyages to the Alaskan and Chukotka shores of the Bering and Chukchi seas. On 17 August 1866 he sighted and landed on Ostrov Vrangelya (Wrangel Island), a year prior to its sighting by Thomas Long, credited by many with the first sighting. For the following three years he commanded the whaling ship Count Bismarck on a whaling cruise to the tropics, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering and Chukchi seas. In 1873–74 he made the first Antarctic whaling voyage aboard Groenland, and discovered and charted the west coasts of Anvers, Brabant, and Liège islands, as well as many smaller islands and straits including Bismarck Strait. He spent the 1875 whaling season as expert consultant, still aboard Groenland, on the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay whaling grounds. Then, to complete his career in polar waters, from 1877 to 1883 he made annual attempts to haul freight to the mouth of the Yenisey River, to be exchanged for grain cargoes brought down that river by barge. Of the seven attempts, only four were successful, the rest being foiled by ice conditions in the Kara Sea, and on the basis of this record, Baron von Knoop, the Russian entrepreneur who was financing the operation, decided to cut his losses. This ended Dallmann's career in polar waters.

The United Nations (UN) has now been involved with the ‘Question of Antarctica’ for 20 years. Divisions within the international community about the most appropriate form of management for Antarctica, which was presented to the UN as a region of global importance, have never completely disappeared, even if the restoration of a consensus approach during the mid-1990s was based upon a broader appreciation of the merits of the Antarctic Treaty System. Both Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties and non-Consultative Parties, pointing to the regime's enduring intrinsic qualities, have adopted an unyielding attitude towards Treaty outsiders advocating a more democratic, accountable, and transparent regime. Even so, the critical lobby, led by Dr Mahathir's Malaysian government, has never gone away. Initially, the ‘Question of Antarctica’ was discussed at the UN on an annual basis, but since 1996 it has been placed on a triennial reference. Following the most recent session in late 2002, the topic is scheduled to be placed on the UN's agenda again in 2005. This article reviews critically the key themes characterising the UN's involvement in the ‘Question of Antarctica’ since 1983, while using successive Polar Record articles on individual UN sessions to provide a framework of reference and an informed basis for further research on the topic.

Although indispensable for hastening the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, United States policy entailed contradictions that jeopardised its domestic ratification. Many senators opposed their government's adherence to the Hughes Doctrine of 1924, requiring sovereignty claims to be based on occupation rather than exploration. US exploration, they knew, had covered more territory than the combined total of the seven nation-states that already had declared their rights based on criteria other than occupation. The Department of State appreciated that public opinion, whether related to Antarctica, the Cold War, or both, might generate congressional pressure to reverse the non-claimant stance and thereby derail the 12-power negotiations even before they reached the conference stage. This article presents evident and hypothetical consequences of policymakers' refusal to address this dilemma, the likelihood of which accompanied an increasingly pro-claimant stance among journalists, as well as the personal exasperation of Admiral Richard E. Byrd.

This paper lists all the Italian expeditions in search of the airship Italia, commanded by General Umberto Nobile, which crashed to the north of Svalbard on 25 May 1928. There were several such expeditions that involved members of the Alpini, the elite mountain corps of the Italian army. The Italian government had allowed Nobile the services of nine Alpini under the command of Captain Gennaro Sora. The original intention had been that they should assist at the base and, in emergency, should act as a rescue team. This they proceeded to do after it had become clear that the airship had disappeared. The Alpini completed much travelling around Svalbard and while unsuccessful in the main object of their search, accomplished some exploration, including the discovery of an island that was named Alpiniøya by Sora.

The remains of the Greenland Norse provide unique biological anthropological material for the investigation of human and environmental interaction. As a population, they were generally secluded from most of the contemporary European medieval society, and land suitable for their way of life was limited in Greenland. The archaeological and historical record is excellent, clearly establishing the 500-year period of colonisation. In other words, the Greenland Norse represent a relatively isolated population, constrained in both space and time.

Living in an environment with very little buffering capacity, ecological changes immediately had repercussions. Ten years of research have shown a direct climatic impact on the humans as well as changing subsistence patterns. It seems that the Norse in Greenland responded to these changes, although inside ‘cultural’ limits. Demographic modelling indicates that emigration may have accounted for the final abandonment of the settlements. A changing ecology thus seems to have pushed the Greenland Norse out of Greenland, because their sedentary way of life, relying on animal husbandry, and probably with a strong cultural sense of identity focused on farmsteads and domestication, became unsustainable. A further step will be clarifying the genetic history of the Norse as well as of the Thule Culture Inuit. These analyses have commenced by examining mtDNA variation and Y-chromosomal diversity among present-day Greenlandic Inuit, and preliminary results appear to provide some information as to the fate of the Norse people.

Evidence is provided from the joint application of tephrochronology and palynology in two Icelandic locations — the island of Papey off the east coast and Seljaland in the south. The Papey study relates to vegetation change around the time of volcanic ash deposition from the eruption of Katla in 1755. This produced various hypotheses concerning volcanic impacts and land-use activities, including changes in nutrient inputs, grazing activity, and climate. Similar data have been obtained from Seljaland, where a group of farms was affected by fall-out from the 1947 eruption of Hekla. The patterns of pollen-based vegetational change were similar at both locations, enabling a fuller exploration of floristic and anthropogenic responses to ash deposition. The Seljaland data are influenced by the known removal of livestock in order to guard against the effects of fluorosis. The resultant cessation of grazing was probably responsible for much of the vegetational change apparent in the pollen record, and this represents a credible recent analogue for processes that may have taken place in Papey in 1755.

Discussions about the management of non-governmental activities in Antarctica have been handicapped by a lack of clarity in terminology. The term ‘tourism,’ for example, is used in a catch-all manner to describe activities as widely divergent and incommensurable as overflights by commercial jetliners and solo ski traverses of the ice cap. Recent debate about stricter regulation of independent expeditions has been similarly confused. This paper examines these definitional hurdles and offers a broad categorization of activities in Antarctica. An overview of recent independent expeditions is then given and issues are discussed. It is suggested that, to date, the terms of the debate have been set by the most powerful vested interests in Antarctica and that the discussion itself has been polarized. The paper does not prescribe policy but indicates alternative points of view and argues that the strict regulatory approach increasingly favoured by some national programs is out of all proportion to the size of potential problems and could diminish traditions of cooperation, non-proprietorship, and the adventurous spirit, which have uniquely characterized human endeavour in Antarctica.

The steam barque Danmark, used on Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen's expedition to northeast Greenland (1906–08), was originally a Scottish whaler named Sir Colin Campbell, built in 1855 in Sunderland. After nine years of whaling out of Peterhead, in 1865 Sir Colin Campbell started the transportation of cryolite from the mines of Ivigtut in southwest Greenland to the United States and several European ports. This trade lasted for 103 years, until 1968. In the early 1870s, the ship was sold to Norwegian owners, renamed Magdalena, fitted with a steam-engine, and used as part of the Tønsberg sealing fleet. In 1894 she was the ship in which Roald Amundsen made his first voyage to the Arctic. In 1905 Magdalena was chartered by the estate of William Ziegler for a relief expedition to Bass Rock, northeast Greenland, to search for members of the Fiala-Ziegler expedition. The next year she was sold to the Danmark-Expedition and renamed Danmark. The main task for the expedition was to survey the coast from 77°N to Independence Bay, an area that was completely unknown. In addition to geographical exploration, much ethnographical, ornithological, zoological, hydrographical, meteorological, and botanical work was carried out on the expedition. In 1909, Danmark was sold to the mining company Grønlandske Minedrifts Aktieselskab of Copenhagen. She made voyages every year to Greenland, returning with copper and graphite. In 1916 she was chartered by the American Museum of Natural History to bring home the members of the Crocker Land Expedition. When in December 1917 she returned to Denmark, her captain did not know that, in their two years' absence, the coastal signals had been changed due to conditions in World War I. Danmark grounded off Høganes, Sweden; condemned, she was sold to a breaker's yard, and her masts, sails, engine, and other fittings were sold at auction the following year.

Cutcliffe Hyne, a popular late-nineteenth-century writer, and his artist friend Cecil Hayter travelled overland from Varanger Fjord in Arctic Norway to the head of the Gulf of Bothnia in the summer of 1896. The ostensible aim of the trip was to observe the Sami in their own habitat, but it also had an element of adventure for its own sake. Approximately half of the distance was accomplished on foot and the rest by canoe or post cart. They were ill-prepared for the journey and experienced considerable problems in securing food at various farms and villages at which they stopped en route. Hyne wrote a travel book based upon the trip entitled Through Arctic Lapland, and this is of interest today as providing a first-hand account of the way of life of the inhabitants of the region through which they passed and also as an example of a style of travel writing that was then common but is now extinct.

The Australian Antarctic Division manages four permanent stations in the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic. At each station a municipal waste incinerator is used to dispose of putrescible waste, wood, paper, cardboard, and plastics. Incineration significantly reduces the volume of waste but this combustion also emits toxic compounds. This study examined the waste incineration stream at Casey Station, Australian Antarctic Territory. The waste stream was sorted, burnt, and the incinerator emissions monitored. Twelve chemical compounds in gaseous emissions and heavy metals in the ash were measured. Results indicate that emissions of carbon monoxide are higher than one might expect from a small incinerator, and hydrocarbon emissions from the incinerator exceed combined hydrocarbon emissions from other sources on station. Arsenic and copper concentrations in ash, which is returned to Australia for disposal, exceed limits for hazardous waste disposal and so treatment would be required. Recommendations are provided on controlling source material in order to reduce or eliminate toxic emissions and undertaking incinerator maintenance to optimise combustion.

The article outlines discourses surrounding the emergence and implementation of the Norwegian Plan of Action for nuclear safety in northwestern Russia. The launching of the Plan of Action was facilitated by the ‘Barents euphoria discourse,’ which held optimistic views of a general clean-up in northwestern Russia with the help of infrastructure financed by the Nordic side, and the ‘nuclear disaster discourse,’ hinging on the idea of a ‘ticking time bomb’ in Norway's immediate vicinity to the east. The latter discourse clashes with the prevalent Russian ‘nuclear complex discourse,’ the main assumption of which is that issues of nuclear safety should be left to the experts, not to the general public. Criticism of the Plan of Action mounted around the turn of the century, eventually causing the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to designate it as largely unsuccessful. The ‘environmental blackmail discourse’ took over in Norway, with its story line that ‘the Russians are taking advantage of us.’ The ‘cold peace discourse’ in Russia has primarily served to obscure Norwegian motivations for the Russians.

Greenland and Iceland are described with unusual scientific accuracy in the King's Mirror. However this thirteenth-century manuscript contains a few ‘wonders’ that appear more mythological than rational. They include the hafstramb and the margygr, commonly translated respectively as merman and mermaid. The mermaid has a long history in western civilisation. The commonly accepted theory that it evolved from the classical Greek siren is critically examined here. The margygr is shown to be a distinct creature based on independent observation in northern Europe. The characteristics of these observations actually modified the siren of the Physiologus, a bird-woman, into the fish-woman known today. Observations of hafstramb and margygr are explained as superior mirages. These are caused by atmospheric refraction, which distorts and magnifies distant objects. Computer simulations and photographs show that mirages of an orca, a walrus, or even a boulder match almost point for point the descriptions in the King's Mirror. Thus the apparently mythical components in the Greenland account are in fact careful scientific observations.

Using methods developed by family history researchers, it is possible to discover a remarkable amount about the individual lives of many men involved in Sir John Franklin's last fatal attempt to discover a Northwest Passage. This work constitutes what might be called ‘the social history’ of Franklin studies, relevant to that voyage in particular, and the early Victorian navy in general. Light is shed upon the lives of the Royal Marines aboard both HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, men who sailed and died with Franklin.

This paper describes the results of a program for the monitoring and remediation of hydrocarbon contamination at the former Greenpeace base site, located at Cape Evans, Ross Island, Antarctica (77°38′S, 166°24′E). World Park Base operated year-round between 1987 and 1991. It was entirely removed in 1991–92. Increased levels of hydrocarbons occurred in sediments nearby the base. The total volume of fuel spilt during Greenpeace operations, estimated at less than 200 L, was less than what would now require reporting according to existing guidelines for national programs. Some fuel spills might have predated Greenpeace activities. Hydrocarbon contamination was highly localised and largely contained in the active layer. However, in one site hydrocarbons were detected to a depth of 70 cm into the permafrost. Low impact, low technology remedial action applied at some sites removed a significant percentage of fuel in the active layer, thus reducing the potential for secondary effects. The fuel that remains in the subsurface post-remediation, estimated in the order of some tens of litres, is contained in ‘lenses’ of contaminated sediment at the bottom of the active layer. These subsurface hydrocarbons may mobilise into the backfill cover above or in the upper part of the permafrost. Hydrocarbons were detected in previously uncontaminated backfill, which may have resulted from upward migration and re-deposition of hydrocarbons. During the monitoring period the interaction of contaminated sites with meltwater and aeolian processes did not significantly change the hydrocarbon distribution at spill sites, although limited mobilisation of hydrocarbons is likely to occur by these or other mechanisms. The difficulty of removing hydrocarbons from permafrost terrain underscores the legal (under the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty) and ethical responsibility of all operators to avoid their release into the Antarctic wilderness, including the areas that have been subject to earlier impacts. A no-action approach might in some cases be the best option available to deal with contaminants in freezing ground, but it is not acceptable unless it is preceded by the thoughtful consideration of all other alternatives. Ultimately, there is a need to find environmentally friendly alternatives to using fossil fuels as the primary source of energy in Antarctic stations.

The Byrranga Mountains (Gory Byrranga) are the most northern mountainous massif of the Taymyr Peninsula (Poluostrov Taymyr) in the Russian Arctic. Although studies of them began in 1736, they are one of the least studied areas of the Arctic. The region has no population, is remote, and has difficult access. As a result, the mountainous tundra ecosystems are preserved practically in a pristine state. The mountains are composed of siltstones and intrusive rocks of neutral composition; vast areas along all the mountain chain are occupied by exposed limestone. Rivers flow in deep intermontane depressions while lakes are found mainly in faults. The climate is an extremely severe continental type. Microclimatic areas provide some relief and support a rich and diverse flora. There have been 391 species and subspecies of vascular plants recorded, but no reliable data on the number of species of mosses and lichens are available. Relict thickets of tall willows are found in protected valleys of piedmont brooks, whereas relict alder-tree thickets occur on warm slopes. The mountain fauna includes nine mammal and 56 bird species. Intermontane depressions serve as corridors for seasonal migrations of wild reindeer that usually spend summers in the southern piedmont areas. Northern piedmonts and wide intermontane depressions are places where herds of musk-ox, introduced in the 1970s, concentrate. The bird fauna of relict willow thickets is highly specific and the fish fauna is quite diverse (16 species), but some species in Taymyr Lake (Ozero Taymyr) have been overexploited. This paper provides the first detailed biogeographical description of the Byrranga Mountains in English.

The Arctic Council has often been described as a formal advisory body established by the Admiralty to help direct the search for Sir John Franklin (1847–59), but no such organization existed. The source of the erroneous and misleading notion appears to be a well-known composite portrait painted by Stephen Pearce in 1851. Frequent repetition in publications on Arctic history has perpetuated the error, with imaginative embellishments.

Buildings were constructed and artefacts left behind on sub-Antarctic Heard Island, associated with Antarctic research expeditions since 1926. Both bryophytes and vascular plants are colonising many parts of the now derelict buildings. On these structures and artefacts, the authors recorded four species of vascular plants out of the 11 that occur on Heard Island and nine species of mosses out of the 37 recorded from Heard Island. The vascular plant species most frequently recorded colonising structures and artefacts was Pringlea antiscorbutica (288 occurrences), with the area colonised varying from 0.3 cm2 to 430.0 cm2. Muelleriella crassifolia was the moss species that was most frequently recorded (14 occurrences), colonising areas from 2.1 cm2 to 12.9 cm2. The highest number of bryophyte species (seven) was recorded on the stone and cement of the ‘water tank.’ Pringlea antiscorbutica, Poa cookii, Azorella selago, Muelleriella crassifolia, Bryum dichotomum, Dicranoweisia brevipes and Schistidium apocarpum are all expected to continue to colonise the ANARE ruins, as well as areas that have become available since building removal and also possibly areas bared by further deglaciation.