Tropical glaciers are rapidly disappearing, particularly in isolated mountain peaks below 5,000 m elevation. These glaciers are fundamental substrates for unique cryogenic ecosystems in high tropical environments where the ice, melting water and rocky substrate sustain microbiological communities and other meso- and macro-biota. This study uses the Red List of Ecosystems guidelines to diagnose the collapse of the tropical glacier ecosystem of the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela. We undertook the assessment with existing estimates of glacier ice extent, indirect historical estimates of ice mass balance and global mechanistic models of future ice mass balance. We complemented these with additional statistical analysis of trends and bioclimatic suitability modelling to calculate and predict rates of decline and relative severity of degradation in selected ecosystem indicators. The evidence suggests an extreme risk of collapse (Critically Endangered) because of a prolonged and acute reduction in ice extent and changes in climatic conditions that are leading to the complete loss of ice mass. The ice substrate has declined 90% in the last 20 years, and observed acceleration of the rate of decline suggests it will probably disappear within the next 5 years. Loss of ice substrate will trigger an immediate loss of supraglacial, englacial and subglacial biotic compartments and initiate a decades-long succession of forefield vegetation. However, ongoing inventories of native biota and monitoring of ecosystem transitions can provide valuable insights and lessons for other ecosystems facing similar risks. The Red List of Ecosystems assessment protocol provides a useful framework for comparative analysis of cryogenic ecosystems.

Terrestrial and marine protected areas have long been championed as an approach to biodiversity conservation. For protected areas to be effective, equitable and inclusive, the involvement of local residents in their management and governance is considered important. Globally, there are many approaches to involving local residents in protected area law enforcement. However, opportunities for comparing different approaches have been limited by the lack of a clear common framework for analysis. To support a more holistic understanding, we present a framework for analysing the contributions of local residents to protected area law enforcement. Informed by a review of the literature and discussions with conservation practitioners, the framework comprises five key dimensions: (1) the different points in the enforcement system at which local residents are involved, (2) the nature of local participation in decision-making, (3) the type of external support provided to local residents, (4) the different motivating forces for participation, and (5) the extent to which local participation is formalized. We apply the framework to three real-world case studies to demonstrate its use in analysing and comparing the characteristics of different approaches. We suggest this framework could be used to examine variation in local participation within the enforcement system, inform evaluation and frame constructive discussions between relevant stakeholders. With the global coverage of protected areas likely to increase, the framework provides a foundation for better understanding the contributions of local residents to protected area law enforcement.

The Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa is a wild ungulate ubiquitous across the largest remaining temperate grasslands of Mongolia, Russia and China. The species is nomadic and ranges over long distances, resulting in widely fluctuating abundance in any given location. Therefore, a comprehensive and range-wide survey is required to accurately estimate its global population size, but challenges are posed by the expansive geographical distribution and the political boundaries across the species’ vast range. To obtain an estimate of the total population, we compiled data from recent range-wide surveys. During 2019–2020, we estimated the population size in Mongolia by conducting line transect distance surveys and total counts, and by deriving numerical predictions for unsurveyed areas through data analysis. The gazelle's population in Russia was surveyed in 2020 across its summer range using simultaneous counts, transect surveys and expert knowledge. The distance sampling surveys in Mongolia revealed that slightly more than half of the gazelles along the transects were detected. Our assessment of the gazelle population, although probably an underestimate, suggests there are c. 2.14 million individuals in Mongolia and c. 30,000 in Russia. These results confirm that the Mongolian gazelle is the most abundant nomadic ungulate in the open plains across its range. However, to obtain more accurate estimates across all range states and effectively monitor the gazelle?s population status, it is essential to implement standardized survey protocols that correct for imperfect detection. At present, the management of the Mongolian gazelle is inadequate, as there is a lack of regular monitoring to identify any adverse population changes that could necessitate conservation interventions.

The increased severity and frequency of bushfires accompanying human-induced global warming have dire implications for biodiversity conservation. Here we investigate the response of a cryptic, cool-climate elapid, the mustard-bellied snake Drysdalia rhodogaster, to the extensive Black Summer fires of 2019/2020 in south-eastern Australia. The species is categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (last assessed in 2017), but because a large part of its range was burnt during the Black Summer and little was known about its ecology, D. rhodogaster was identified as a priority species for post-fire impact assessment. We evaluated three lines of evidence to assess the impact of the Black Summer fires on D. rhodogaster. Habitat suitability modelling indicated that c. 46% of the predicted range of the species was affected by bushfire. Field surveys conducted 9–36 months post-fire and collation of records from public databases submitted 0–24 months post-fire indicated that D. rhodogaster persisted in burnt landscapes. Fire severity and proportion of the landscape that was burnt within a 1,000-m radius of survey sites were poor predictors of site occupancy by D. rhodogaster. Although conclusions regarding the effects of fire on D. rhodogaster are limited because of the lack of baseline data, it is evident that the species has persisted across the landscape in the wake of extensive bushfires. Our work highlights the need for baseline knowledge on cryptic species even when they are categorized as Least Concern, as otherwise assessments of the impacts of catastrophic events will be constrained.

Crop foraging by African savannah elephants Loxodonta africana negatively affects farmer livelihoods and support for conservation, yet affordable, sustainable and practical solutions remain elusive. To inform conservation priorities, our goal was to assess the hitherto little explored relationships between farmers’ views on agricultural damage and the socio-economic factors limiting their use of elephant deterrents. We tested our hypotheses associated with the demographic categories of age, education level, years spent farming, gender, exposure to information on deterrent methods, farm size, village and relevant combinations of these factors by surveying 206 respondents across six villages in rural Kenya and analysing the resulting data using an information theoretic approach. Respondents were almost four times more likely to use deterrents if exposed to the relevant information, and almost five times more likely to do so if they had secondary education as opposed to none. Farmers with a higher level of education were five times more likely to have received information on deterrents compared to those with no formal education. Participants who had not received information on deterrents were almost three times more likely to believe that they could implement deterrent methods. Respondents who stated that they could not implement deterrents overwhelmingly cited a lack of financial resources as the reason. Overall, we found that crucial information on reducing elephant crop foraging is not reaching the relevant stakeholders, and socio-economic factors such as education and exposure to information appear to limit uptake of protective measures. These insights are important for developing mitigation strategies and supporting the livelihoods of people affected by negative human–elephant interactions, and thus for effective elephant conservation. Our findings also have broader applications for practitioners seeking to understand barriers stakeholders face in their efforts to mitigate negative interactions with wildlife.

The snow leopard Panthera uncia is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. It is the least well-known of the large felids because of its shy and elusive nature and the inaccessible terrain it inhabits across the mountains of Central and South Asia. We report the first photographic record of the snow leopard in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, India. During our camera-trapping surveys, conducted using a grid-based design, we obtained eight photographs of snow leopards, the first at 3,280 m altitude on 19 September 2022 and subsequent photographs over 3,004–3,878 m altitude. We identified at least four different individuals, establishing the species’ occurrence in Kiyar, Nanth and Renai catchments, with a capture rate of 0.123 ± SE 0.072 captures/100 trap-nights. We also recorded the presence of snow leopard prey species, including the Siberian ibex Capra sibirica, Himalayan musk deer Moschus leucogaster, long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata and pika Ochotona sp., identifying the area as potential snow leopard habitat. Given the location of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, this record is significant for the overall snow leopard conservation landscape in India. We recommend a comprehensive study across the Kishtwar landscape to assess the occupancy, abundance, demography and movement patterns of the snow leopard and its prey. In addition, interactions between the snow leopard and pastoral communities should be assessed to understand the challenges facing the conservation and management of this important high-altitude region.

Transfrontier conservation landscapes, such as the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TCA) in southern Africa, play a crucial role in preserving global biodiversity and promoting the sustainable development of local communities. However, resources to facilitate management could become scarce across large areas, leading to difficulties in obtaining baseline ecological information. Consequently, in the absence of sustainable management vast landscapes may experience loss of wildlife species, which could destabilize ecosystems. This effect is particularly significant if the loss involves top predators. Hence, understanding carnivore distributions is critical to informing management. We conducted a mammal survey in the Ondjou Conservancy in Namibia, an 8,729 km2 understudied area in the south-west of the KAZA TCA. We analysed camera-trapping data from a 2,304 km2 grid and identified high carnivore richness (18 species) despite widespread human activity and prey depletion. Using a multi-species occupancy framework we found that carnivore occurrence increased with increasing distance from the main village and with closer proximity to the Nyae Nyae Conservancy neighbouring the KAZA TCA, which has large and diverse carnivore populations. Carnivore occurrence was higher when local prey richness was high. The Ondjou Conservancy could function as an important buffer for the larger conservation network, yet rural communities in this area require support for fostering human–wildlife coexistence. Additionally, restoring the natural prey base will be critical to ensuring the long-term viability of carnivore populations in this and other human-impacted landscapes. With many remote areas of transfrontier conservation landscapes being understudied, our findings illustrate the conservation potential of such areas within large-scale conservation networks.

Camera traps are widely used to study wildlife. However, theft and vandalism are frequent, resulting in millions of dollars in financial losses and large data gaps in research. Here we report on the impacts of camera-trap theft on a study examining wildlife movement under highway bridges in south-west Costa Rica. Even with metal cases, locks and signs installed on all camera traps, 65% were stolen. The working camera traps accumulated a total of 167 trap-nights and detected only two wild mammal species, eight bird species and one reptile species, as well as three domestic animal species and people. This limited number of wild species was unexpected given the known presence of wide-ranging megafauna and a diverse terrestrial mammal community in the region. The pervasive theft of camera traps leads to data gaps and impairs the potential for research in the region, and we discuss the potential additional reasons for detecting only a small number of species. Our findings highlight the need for solutions to camera-trap theft, to limit financial and data losses for conservation.

Khata Corridor forest, which serves as a border crossing for wildlife between Nepal and India, is one of the areas in Nepal with the highest incidence of human–wildlife conflict. In recent years both the tiger Panthera tigris tigris and human populations in this region have increased, leading to more frequent conflict. We aimed to determine whether increased conflict risk was primarily from tigers entering human settlements or whether there are additional drivers associated with human use of forested areas. We conducted the study in four settlements that varied in socio-economic status and distance from Bardiya National Park, through field visits and household surveys. Tiger records (sightings, pug marks and attacks) were most frequent far from Bardiya National Park, in settlements without benefits from tiger-based tourism and nearer the periphery of forest, and were rarely associated with the interior of settlements. Human visitation into forests was also highest in the most remote settlement. Our findings suggest that conflict risk is driven by the extent of human activity in forested areas, reflecting an unequal distribution of the conservation benefits of tourism amongst settlements. In the long-term, continued coexistence between people and tigers will depend on minimizing conflict risk across settlements through establishing an equitable distribution of conservation benefits. In the short term, we recommend raising public awareness of tiger behaviour to emphasize that tigers are highly unlikely to enter and occupy the interior of human settlements, mitigating negative perceptions of conflict risk.