Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T12:04:52.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Physiological Mechanisms in the Adaptive Response of Metabolic Rates to Energy Restriction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

P. S. Shetty
P. S. Shetty
Affiliation:
Nutrition Research Centre, Department of Physiology, St John's Medical College, Bangalore 560 034, India
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. As you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , January 1990 , pp. 49 - 74
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1990

References

REFERENCES

Acheson, K. J., Ravussin, E., Wahren, J. & Jequier, E. (1984). Thermic effect of glucose in man. Obligatory and facultative thermogenesis. Journal of Clinical Investigation 74, 1572–1580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Apfelbaum, M. (1978). Adaptation to changes in caloric intake. Progress in Food & Nutrition Science 2, 543–559.Google ScholarPubMed
Ashworth, A. (1968). An investigation of very low calorie intakes reported in Jamaica. British Journal of Nutrition 22, 341–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barac-Nieto, M., Spurr, G. B., Lotero, H. & Maksud, M. G. (1978). Body composition in chronic undernutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 23–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barton, M. & Wiesner, B. P. (1945). Thermogenic effect of progesterone. Lancet ii, 671–672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beattie, J. & Herbert, P. H. (1947). The estimation of the metabolic rate in the starvation state. British Journal of Nutrition 1, 1985–1991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, F. G. (1915). A Study of Prolonged Fasting. Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication no. 203. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benedict, F. G., Miles, W. R., Roth, P. & Smith, H. M. (1919). Human Vitality and Efficiency Under Prolonged Restricted Diet. Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication no. 280. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington.Google Scholar
Bessard, T., Schutz, Y. & Jéquier, E. (1983). Energy expenditure and postprandial thermogenesis in obese women before and after weight loss. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 38, 680–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilezikian, J. P. & Loeb, J. N. (1983). The influence of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism on alpha and beta adrenergic receptor systems and adrenergic responsiveness. Endocrine Reviews 4, 378–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bisdee, J. T., James, W. P. T. & Shaw, M. A. (1989). Changes in energy expenditure during the menstrual cycle. British Journal of Nutrition 61, 187–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bourgeois, B., Schmidt, B. J. & Bourgeois, R. (1973). Some aspects of catecholamines in undernutrition. In Endocrine Aspects of Malnutrition. Proceedings of SymposiumKroc FoundationCalifornia, pp. 163–179 [Gardner, L. I. and Amacher, P., editors].Google Scholar
Bray, G. A. (1969 a). Calorigenic effect of human growth hormone in obesity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 29, 119–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bray, G. A. (1969 b). Effect of caloric restriction on energy expenditure in obese patients. Lancet ii, 397–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, G. A. (1976). The Obese Patient, Major Problems in Internal Medicine, pp. 1–450. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders.Google Scholar
Bray, G. A., Melvin, K. E. W. & Chopra, I. J. (1973). Effect of triiodothyronine on some metabolic responses of obese patients. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 26, 715–721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bray, G. A., Raben, M. S., Londono, J. & Gallagher, T. F. (1971). Effects of triiodothyronine, growth hormone and anabolic steroids on nitrogen excretion and oxygen consumption of obese patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 33, 293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brozek, J. (1955). Nutrition and behavior: psychologic changes in acute starvation with hard physical work. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 31, 703–707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burger, A. G., Weissel, M. & Burger, M. (1980). Starvation induces a partial failure of triiodothyronine to inhibit the thyrotropin response to thyrotropin releasing hormone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 51, 1064–1067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cahill, G. F. (1976). Starvation in man. Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism 5, 397–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cahill, G. F., Herrera, M. G., Morgan, A. P., Soeldner, J. S., Steinke, J., Levy, P. L., Reichard, G. A. & Kipnis, D. M. (1966). Hormone-fuel interrelationships during fasting. Journal of Clinical Investigation 45, 1751–1769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, H. E., Drenick, E. J., Chopra, I. J. & Hershman, J. M. (1977). Alterations in basal and TRH-stimulated serum levels of thyrotropin, prolactin, and thyroid hormones in starved obese men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 45, 707–713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chopra, I. J. (1977). A study of extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine (T4) to 3,3′5,-triiodothyronine (T3) in vitro. Endocrinology 101, 453–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chopra, I. J. & Smith, S. R. (1975). Circulating thyroid hormones and thyrotropin in adult patients with protein-calorie malnutrition. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 40, 221–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christin, L., Nacht, C. A., Verney, O., Ravussin, E., Jequier, E. & Acheson, K. J. (1986). Insulin – its role in the thermic effect of glucose. Journal of Clinical Investigation 77, 1747–1755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clausen, T. & Kohn, P. G. (1977). The effect of insulin on the transport of sodium and potassium in rat soleus muscle. Journal of Physiology 265, 19–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clemmons, D. R., Snyder, D. K., Williams, R. & Underwood, L. E. (1987). Growth hormone administration conserves lean body mass during dietary restriction in obese subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 64, 878–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croxson, M. S., Hall, T. D., Kletzky, O. A., Jaramillo, J. E. & Nicoloff, J. T. (1977). Decreased serum thyrotropin induced by fasting. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 45, 560–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danforth, E. (1985). Hormonal adaptation to over- and underfeeding. In Substrate and Energy Metabolism in Man, Third Clinical Research Centre Symposium, 1984, pp. 155–168 [Garow, J. S. and Halliday, D., editors]. London: John Libbey.Google Scholar
Danforth, E. (1986). Effect of fasting and altered nutrition on thyroid hormone metabolism in man. In Thyroid Hormone Metabolism, pp. 335–358 [Henneman, G., editor]. New York: Marcel Dekker.Google Scholar
Danforth, E. (1989). Hormonal adaptations to energy balance and imbalance and the regulation of energy expenditure. In Hormones, Thermogenesis and Obesity, pp. 19–32 [Lardy, H. and Stratham, F., editors]. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Danforth, E. & Burger, A. G. (1989). The impact of nutrition on thyroid hormone physiology and action. Annual Review of Nutrition 9, 201–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danforth, E. & Landsberg, L. (1983). Energy expenditure and its regulation. In Contemporary Issues in Clinical Nutrition, vol. 4 [Greenwood, M. R. C., editor]. New York: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Davidson, L., Rouse, I. L., Vandongen, R. & Beilin, L. J. (1985). Plasma noradrenaline and its relationship to plasma oestradiol in normal women during the menstrual cycle. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 12, 489–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeHaven, J., Sherwin, R., Hendler, R. & Felig, P. (1980). Nitrogen and sodium balance and sympathetic nervous system activity in obese subjects treated with low calorie protein or mixed diet. New England Journal of Medicine 302, 477–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Nayer, Ph., Dozin, B., Vandeput, Y., Bottazzo, F. C. & Crabbe, J. (1987). Altered interactions between triiodothyronine and its nuclear receptors in absence of cortisol: a proposed mechanism for increased thyrotropin secretion in corticosteroid deficiency states. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 17, 106–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elia, M., Zed, C., Neale, G. & Livesey, G. (1987). The energy cost of triglyceride-fatty acid cycling in non-obese subjects after an overnight fast and four days of starvation. Metabolism 36, 251–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferro-Luzzi, A. (1985). Range of variation in energy expenditure and scope of regulation. In Proceedings XIII International Congress of Nutrition, pp. 393–399 [Taylor, T. G. and Jenkins, N. K., editors]. London: John Libbey.Google Scholar
Fliederbaum, J., Heller, A., Zweibaum, K., Szejnfinkel, S., Elbinger, R. & Ferszt, F. (1979). Hunger Disease, pp. 79–172 [Winick, M., editor]. New York: Wiley Interscience.Google ScholarPubMed
Fylling, P. (1971). Propranolol blockade of vasopressin induced increase in plasma progesterone in early human pregnancy. Acta Endocrinologica 66, 283–288.Google ScholarPubMed
Galster, A. D., Clutter, W. E. & Cryer, P. E. (1981). Epinephrine plasma thresholds for lipolytic effects in man. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 53, 1207–1212.Google Scholar
Galton, V. A. (1965). Thyroid hormone-catecholamine interrelationships. Endocrinology 77, 278–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galvao-Teles, A., Graves, L., Burke, C. W., Fotherby, K. & Frazer, R. (1976). Free cortisol in obesity: effect of fasting. Acta Endocrinologica 81, 321–329.Google ScholarPubMed
Gardner, D. F., Kaplan, M. M., Stanky, C. A. & Utiger, R. D. (1979). Effect of triiodothyronine replacement on the metabolic and pituitary responses to starvation. New England Journal of Medicine 300, 579–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garlick, P. J., Clugston, G. A. & Waterlow, J. C. (1980). Influence of low energy diets on whole body protein turnover in obese subjects. American Journal of Physiology 238, E235–244.Google ScholarPubMed
Goodman, H. M. & Knobil, E. (1959). Effect of adrenergic blocking agents on fatty acid mobilization during fasting. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 102, 493–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, G. G. & Blizzard, R. M. (1973). Thyroid hormone studies in severely malnourished Peruvian infants and small children. In Endocrine Aspects of Malnutrition. Proceedings of SymposiumKroc FoundationCalifornia pp. 205–219 [Gardner, L. I. and Amacher, P., editors].Google Scholar
Graham, G. G. & Placko, R. P. (1975). Free catecholamine excretion in the urine in normal infants and those with marasmus or kwashiorkor. Journal of Pediatrics 86, 965–969.Google ScholarPubMed
Grande, F. (1964). Man under caloric deficiency. Handbook of Physiology, Adaptation to the Environment, pp. 911–937. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society.Google Scholar
Grande, F., Anderson, J. T. & Keys, A. (1958). Changes of basal metabolic rate in man in semistarvation and refeeding. Journal of Applied Physiology 12, 230 238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guernsey & Edelman, I. S. (1983). Regulation of thyroid thermogenesis by thyroid hormones. In Molecular Basis of Thyroid Hormone Action, pp. 293–301 [Oppenheimer, J. H. and Samuels, H. H., editors]. New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henneman, P. H., Forbes, A. P., Moldawern, M., Dempsey, E. F. & Caroll, E. F. (1960). Effects of human growth hormone in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 39, 1223–1226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, C. J. K., Rivers, J. P. W. & Payne, P. R. (1988). Protein and energy metabolism in starvation reconsidered. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 42, 543–549.Google ScholarPubMed
Himms-Hagen, J. (1976). Cellular thermogenesis. Annual Review of Physiology 38, 315–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Himms-Hagen, J. (1983). Thyroid hormones and thermogenesis. In Mammalian Thermogenesis, pp. 141–177 [Giardier, L. and Stock, M. J., editors]. London: Chapman and Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoeldtke, R. D. & Wurtman, R. J. (1973). Excretion of catecholamines and catecholamine metabolites in kwashiorkor. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 26, 205–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollingsworth, D. R., Amaturda, T. T. & Scheig, R. (1970). Quantitative and qualitative effects of L-triiodothyronine in massive obesity. Metabolism 12, 934–945.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingenbleek, Y. & Beckers, C. (1975). Triiodothyronine and thyroid stimulating hormone in protein calorie malnutrition in infants. Lancet ii, 845–846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaksson, O. G. P., Eden, S. & Jansson, J. O. (1985). Mode of action of pituitary growth hormone on target cells. Annual Review of Physiology 47, 483–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Issekutz, B., Paul, P., Miller, H. I. & Bortz, W. M. (1968). Oxidation of plasma FFA in lean and obese humans. Metabolism 24, 62–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. P. T. & Coore, H. G. (1970). Persistent impairment of insulin secretion and glucose tolerance after malnutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 23, 386–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, W. P. T. & Shetty, P. S. (1982). Metabolic adaptation and energy requirements in developing countries. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 36, 331–336.Google ScholarPubMed
Jordan, A. W., Caffrey, J. L. & Niswender, G. D. (1978). Catecholamine induced stimulation of progesterone and adenosine 3'5' monophosphate production by dispersed ovine luteal cells. Endocrinology 103, 385–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung, R. T., Liddell, F., Shetty, P. S. & James, W. P. T. (1981). The effect of L-Dopa with carbidopa (Sinemet) on the metabolic response to semistarvation. International Journal of Obesity 4, 221–226.Google Scholar
Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S., Barrand, M., Callingham, B. A. & James, W. P. T. (1979 a). Role of catecholamines in the hypotensive response to dieting. British Medical Journal i, 12–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S. & James, W. P. T. (1979 b). Reduced thermogenesis in obesity. Nature 279, 322–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S. & James, W. P. T. (1980 a). Nutritional effects on thyroid and catecholamine metabolism. Clinical Science 58, 183–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S. & James, W. P. T. (1980 b). The effect of refeeding after semistarvation on catecholamine and thyroid metabolism. International Journal of Obesity 4, 95–100.Google ScholarPubMed
Jung, R. T., Shetty, P. S. & James, W. P. T. (1980 c). The effect of beta-adrenergic blockade on resting metabolic rate and peripheral thyroid metabolism in obesity. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 10, 179–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaciuba-Uscilko, H. (1973). The effect of previous thyroxine administration on the metabolic response to adrenaline in new-born pigs. Biology of the Neonate 19, 220–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kappas, A. & Palmer, R. H. (1965). Thermogenic properties of steroids. In Methods in Hormone Research, vol. 4, pp. 119–129 [Dorfman, R. I., editor]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Katzeff, H., LaGrange, B., Horton, E. & Danforth, E. (1986). Substrate and hormone response to graded infusions of norepinephrine during over and undernutrition in lean and obese man. Metabolism 35, 166–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelson, O. & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The Biology of Human Starvation. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keys, A., Taylor, H. L. & Grande, F. (1973). Basal Metabolism and age of adult man. Metabolism 22, 579–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolanowski, J., Jeanjean, M. & Lambert, A. E. (1975). Hormonal adaptation to short term total fast in the obese. In Regulation of Energy Balance in Men, [Jéquier, E., editor]. Geneva: Editions Médicine et Hygiène.Google Scholar
Koong, L. J. & Ferrell, C. L. (1990). Effects of short term nutritional manipulation on organ size and fasting heat production. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44, Suppl. 1, 73–78.Google ScholarPubMed
Koppeschaar, H. P. F., Melnders, A. E. & Schwartz, F. (1983). Metabolic responses in grossly obese subjects treated with low calorie diet with and without T3 treatment. International Journal of Obesity 7, 133–141.Google Scholar
Krebs, H. A. (1972). Some aspects of the regulation of fuel supply in omnivorous animals. In Advances in Enzyme Regulation, vol. 10, pp. 397–414 [Weber, G., editor]. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Kurpad, A. V., Kulkarni, R. N., Sheela, M. L. & Shetty, P. S. (1989 a). Thermogenic responses to graded doses of noradrenaline in undernourished Indian male subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 61, 201–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurpad, A. V., Kulkarni, R. N. & Shetty, P. S. (1989 b). Reduced thermoregulatory thermogenesis in undernutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 27–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Axelrod, J. (1968). Influence of pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal hormones on norepinephrine turnover and metabolism in the rat heart. Circulation Research 22, 559–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Bruno, S. J. (1973). 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa), dopamine and norepinephrine storage in the rat heart after L-dopa: further evidence for norepinephrine release. Biochemical Pharmacology 22, 417–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Young, J. B. (1978). Fasting, feeding and regulation of the sympathetic nervous system. New England Journal of Medicine 298, 1295–1301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Young, J. B. (1983 a). The role of the sympathetic nervous system and catecholamines in the regulation of energy metabolism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 38, 1018–1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Young, J. B. (1983 b). Autonomic regulation of thermogenesis. In Mammalian Thermogenesis, pp. 99–140 [Girardier, L. and Stock, M. J. editors]. London: Chapman and Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landsberg, L. & Young, J. B. (1984). The role of the sympathoadrenal system in modulating energy expenditure. Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism 13, 475–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landsberg, L. & Young, J. B. (1985). Insulin-mediated glucose metabolism in the relationship between dietary intake and sympathetic nervous system activity. International Journal of Obesity 9, Suppl., 63–68.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, J. B., Vance, V. K. & Cahill, G. F. (1962). Metabolism of C14 labelled substrates by rabbit kidney cortex and medulla. American Journal of Physiology 203, 27–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefkowitz, R. J., Caron, H. G. & Stiles, G. L. (1984). Mechanism of membrane receptor regulation: biochemical, physiological and clinical insights derived from studies of adrenergic receptors. New England Journal of Medicine 310, 1570–1579.Google ScholarPubMed
Levy, A. C. & Ramey, E. R. (1958). Effect of autonomic blocking agents on depot fat mobilization in normal and adrenalectomized animals. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 99, 637–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lumholtz, I. B., Siersbeaek-Nielsen, K. & Faber, J. (1978). Effect of propranolol on extra thyroidal metabolism of thyroxine and triiodothyronine evaluated by non-compartmental kinetics. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 47, 587–589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansell, P. I. & Macdonald, I. A. (1989). Underfeeding and physiological responses to infused epinephrine in lean women. American Journal of Physiology 256, R583–589.Google ScholarPubMed
McNeill, G., Rivers, J. P. W., Payne, P. R., deBritto, J. J. & Abel, R. (1987). Basal metabolic rate of Indian men: no evidence of metabolic adaptation to a low plane of nutrition. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 41C, 473–484.Google Scholar
Millward, D. J. (1985). Hormonal responses to low intakes in relation to adaptation. In Proceedings of XIII International Congress of Nutrition, pp. 419–423 [Taylor, T. G. and Jenkins, N. K., editors]. London: John Libbey.Google Scholar
Millward, D. J., Garlick, P. J. & Reeds, P. J. (1976). The energy cost of growth. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 35, 339–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, R. D. G. (1972). Insulin secretion in human protein-calorie malnutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 31, 219–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minderop, R. H., Hoeppner, W. & Seitz, H. J. (1987). Regulation of hepatic glucokinase gene expression. Role of carbohydrates and glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones. European Journal of Biochemnistry 164, 181–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, H. H. (1944). Adaptation to undernutrition. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 20, 511–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, R. D. (1981). Stimulation of Na:H exchange by insulin. Biophysical Journal 33, 203–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Motulsky, H. J. & Insel, P. A. (1982). Adrenergic receptors in man. Direct identification, physiological regulation and clinical alterations. New England Journal of Medicine 307, 18–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nair, K. S. (1987). Hyperglucagonemia increases resting metabolic rate in man during insulin deficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64, 896–901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newsholme, E. A. (1980). A possible metabolic basis for the control of body weight. New England Journal of Medicine 302, 400–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brian, J. T., Bybee, D. E., Burman, K. D., Osburne, R. C., Ksiazek, M. R., Wartofsky, L. & Georges, L. P. (1980). Thyroid hormone homeostasis in states of relative caloric deprivation. Metabolism 29, 717–721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Dea, K., Esler, M., Leonard, P., Stockigt, J. R. & Nestel, P. (1982). Noradrenaline turnover during under and over eating in normal weight subjects. Metabolism 31, 896–899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Onuora, C., Singh, Ajit G. M. & Etta, K. M. (1983). Thyroid status in various degrees of protein-energy malnutrition in children. Clinical Endocrinology 19, 87–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheimer, J. H., Schwartz, H. L., Mariash, C. N., Kinlaw, W. B., Wong, N. C. W. & Freake, H. C. (1987). Advances in our understanding of thyroid hormone action at the cellular level. Endocrine Reviews 8, 288–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parra, A., Serrano, P., Chavez, B., Garcia, G., Argote, R., Klish, W., Cuellar, A. & Nichols, B. L. (1973). Studies of daily catecholamine excretion in kwashiorkor as observed in Mexico. In Endocrine Aspects of Malnutrition. Proceedings of Symposium of Kroc FoundationCalifornia, pp. 172–181 [Gardner, L. and Amacher, P., editors].Google Scholar
Passmore, R. & Draper, M. H. (1965). Energy metabolism. In Newer Methods of Nutritional Biochemistry, [Albanese, A. A. editor]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Phinney, S. D., LaGrange, B. M., O'Connell, M. & Danforth, E. (1988). Effects of aerobic exercise on energy expenditure and nitrogen balance during very low caloric dieting. Metabolism 37, 758–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanamurthy, P. S. V., Srikantia, S. G. & Gopalan, C. (1962). Energy metabolism in undernourished subjects before and after rehabilitation. Indian Journal of Medical Research 50, 108–112.Google Scholar
Ramirez, A., Fletes, L., Mizrahi, L. & Parra, A. (1978). Daily urinary catecholamine profile in marasmus and kwashiorkor. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, K. S. J. & Raghuramulu, N. (1972). Insulin secretion in kwashiorkor. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 35, 63–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, N. P., Sastry, J. G. & Rao, B. S. N. (1986). National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau: Achievements and Constraints. New Delhi: Indian Council of Medical Research.Google Scholar
Rastogi, G. K., Sawhney, R. C., Panda, N. C. & Tripathy, B. B. (1974). Thyroid hormone levels in adult protein calorie malnutrition. Hormone and Metabolic Research 6, 528–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothwell, N. J., Saville, M. E. & Stock, M. J. (1982). Sympathetic and thyroid influences on metabolic rate in fed, fasted and refed rats. American Journal of Physiology 234, R339–346.Google Scholar
Rowe, J. W., Young, J. B., Minaker, K. L., Stevens, A. L., Pallotta, J. & Landsberg, L. (1981). Effect of insulin and glucose infusions on sympathetic nervous system activity in normal man. Diabetes 30, 219–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabeh, G., Alley, R. A., Robbins, T. J., Narduzzi, J. V., Kenny, F. M. & Danowski, T. S. (1969). Adrenocortical indices during fasting in obesity. Endocrinology 29, 373–376.Google ScholarPubMed
Schachner, S. H., Wieland, R. G., Maynard, D. E., Kruger, F. A. & Hamwi, G. J. (1965). Alterations in adrenal cortical function in fasting obese subjects. Metabolism 14, 1051–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schussler, G. C. & Orlando, J. (1978). Fasting decreases triiodothyronine receptor capacity. Science 199, 686–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, A. L., Kerlow, A. & Ulstrom, R. A. (1964). Effect of starvation on adrenal cortical function in obese subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 24, 1253–1257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherwin, R. & Felig, P. (1987). Starvation in normal humans. In Endocrinology and Metabolism, pp. 1182–1183 [Felig, P., Baxter, J. D., Broadus, A. E. and Frohman, L. A., editors]. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S. (1980). Studies on protein and energy restriction and dietary thermogenesis in obesity and chronic undernutrition. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S. (1984). Adaptive changes in basal metabolic rate and lean body mass in chronic undernutrition. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 38C, 443–452.Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S. (1990). Energy metabolism in chronic energy deficiency. Proceedings of Nutrition Society of India. (In the Press.)Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S., Jung, R. T. & James, W. P. T. (1979). Effect of catecholamine replacement with levodopa on the metabolic response to semistarvation. Lancet i, 77–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shetty, P. S. & Kurpad, A. V. (1990). Role of the sympathetic nervous system in adaptation to seasonal deficiency. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44, Suppl. 1, 47–54.Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S., Kurpad, A. V., Kulkarni, R. N. & Vaz, M. (1988). Thermogenic Responses to Norepinephrine in Chronic Energy Deficiency. Basle: Nestlé Foundation.Google Scholar
Shulman, G. I., Ladenson, P. W., Wolfe, M. H., Ridgeway, E. C. & Wolfe, R. R. (1985). Substrate cycling between gluconeogenesis and glycolysis in euthyroid, hypothyroid and hyperthyroid man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 76, 757–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sims, E. A. H. (1986). Energy balance in human beings. Vitamins & Hormones 43, 1–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sjöström, L. (1985). Catecholamine sensitivity with respect to metabolic rate in man. International Journal of Obesity 9, Suppl. 2, 123–129.Google ScholarPubMed
Sjöström, L., Schutz, Y., Gudinchet, F., Hegnell, L., Pittet, P. G. & Jéquier, E. (1983). Epinephrine sensitivity with respect to metabolic rate and other variables in women. American Journal of Physiology 245, E431–442.Google ScholarPubMed
Snyder, D. K., Clemmons, D. R. & Underwood, L. E. (1989). Dietary carbohydrate content determines responsiveness to growth hormone in energy restricted humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 69, 745–752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spencer, C. A., Lum, S. M. C., Wilbur, J. F., Kaptein, E. M. & Icoloff, J. T. (1983). Dynamics of serum thyrotropin and thyroid hormone changes in fasting. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 56, 883–888.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Srikantia, S. G. (1985). Nutritional adaptation in man. Proceedings of Nutrition Society of India 31, 1–16.Google Scholar
Steinberg, D., Nestel, P. J., Buskirk, E. R. & Thompson, R. H. (1964). Calorigenic effect of norepinephrine correlated with free fatty acid turnover and oxidation. Journal of Clinical Investigation 43, 167–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sterling, K. (1979). Thyroid hormone action at the cell level. New England Journal of Medicine 300, 117 122.Google ScholarPubMed
Swann, A. C. (1984). Na+-K+ ATPase regulation by the sympathetic nervous system: effects of noradrenaline stimulation. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 228, 304–311.Google Scholar
Swenne, I., Crace, C. J. & Milner, D. G. (1987). Persistent impairment of insulin secretory response to glucose in adult rats after limited period of protein-calorie malnutrition in early life. Diabetes 36, 454–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takahira, H. (1925). Metabolism during fasting and subsequent refeeding. Report of the Metabolic Lab of the Imperial Government Institute for Nutrition, Tokyo 1, 63–82.Google Scholar
Taylor, H. L. & Keys, A. (1950). Adaptation to caloric restriction. Science 112, 215–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trisotto, A., Busnardo, B., Frezatto, S., Girelli, M. L. & Federspil, G. (1970). Effect of glucagon on O2 consumption in man. Acta Isotopica (Padova) 10, 349–358.Google ScholarPubMed
Venkatachalam, P. S., Srikantia, S. G. & Gopalan, C. (1954). Basal metabolism in nutritional edema. Metabolism 2, 138–141.Google Scholar
Waterlow, J. C. (1984). Protein turnover with special references to man. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 69, 405–438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterlow, J. C. (1986). Metabolic adaptation to low intakes of energy and protein. Annual Review of Nutrition 6, 495–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterlow, J. C. & Jackson, A. A. (1981). Nutrition and protein turnover in man. British Medical Bulletin 37, 5–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterlow, J. C. & Millward, D. J. (1989). Energy cost of turnover of protein and other cellular constituents. In Energy Transformations in Cells and Organisms, 277–282 [Weisser, W. and Graiger, E., editors]. Stuttgart: Thieme Verlag.Google Scholar
Webb, P. & Abrams, T. (1983). Loss of fat stores and reduction in sedentary energy expenditure from undereating. Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition 37, 271–282.Google ScholarPubMed
Weisswange, A. F., Cuendet, G. S. & Marliss, E. B. (1975). Hormonal and metabolic response to a hypocaloric protein diet in normal working subjects. In Regulation of Energy Balance in Man, pp. 117–121 [Jéquier, E., editor]. Geneva: Editions Médicine et Hygiène.Google Scholar
Welle, S. L., Amatruda, J. M., Forbes, G. B. & Lockwood, D. H. (1984). Resting metabolic rates of obese women after rapid weight loss. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 59, 41–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welle, S. L. & Campbell, R. G. (1986). Decrease in resting metabolic rate during rapid weight loss is reversed by low dose thyroid hormone treatment. Metabolism 35, 289–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welle, S. L., Nair, K. S. & Campbell, R. G. (1989). Failure of chronic β-adrenergic blockade to inhibit overfeeding induced thermogenesis in humans. American Journal of Physiology 256, R653–658.Google ScholarPubMed
Widdowson, E. M. (1985). Responses to deficits of dietary energy. In Nutritional Adaptation in Man, pp. 97–104 [Blaxter, K. L. and Waterlow, J. C., editors]. London: John Libbey.Google Scholar
Woo, R., O'Connell, M., Horton, E. S. & Danforth, E. (1985). Changes in resting metabolism with increased intake and exercise. Clinical Research 33, 712 Abstr.Google Scholar
Young, J. B. & Landsberg, L. (1977 a). Catecholamines and intermediary metabolism. Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism 6, 599–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, J. B. & Landsberg, L. (1977 b). Suppression of sympathetic nervous system during fasting. Science 196, 1473–1475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, J. B. & Landsberg, L. (1979). Effect of diet and cold exposure on norepinephrine turnover in pancreas and liver. American Journal of Physiology 236, E524–533.Google Scholar
Young, J. B. & Landsberg, L. (1983). Adrenergic influence on peripheral hormone secretion. In Adrenoceptors and Catecholamine Action, part B, 157–217 [Kunos, G., editor]. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Young, J. B., Rosa, R. M. & Landsberg, L. (1984). Dissociation of sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medullary responses. American Journal of Physiology 240, E314–319.Google Scholar