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Building pasta's empire: Barilla in Italian East Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2023

Diana Garvin
Diana Garvin*
Affiliation:
Department of Romance Languages, University of Oregon, USA
*
Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article investigates the role that Italian food companies like Barilla pasta played in creating narratives of East African empire at the apex of the Fascist ventennio. It aims to use the commercial remnants of Fascist empire to provide a more thorough accounting of how colonialism shaped the modern cultural history of Italian pasta. To do so, I analyze the paper ephemera, that is, the pasta advertisements and packaging, that connected occupied East Africa to Italy, demonstrating how regime projects to promote grain evolved into corporate projects in private industry. I argue that these two stories form a single cohesive narrative, one that can unite much of the excellent work that has been done on Fascist agriculture in empire with the transnational history of Italian food companies. East African empire, as depicted by Italian pasta shapes and advertisements, was consumable. At stake in this inquiry lies the shifting question of Italian national identity, framed by food products in global contexts.

Questo articolo analizza il contributo che le aziende alimentari italiane, e in particolare la Barilla, hanno dato alla creazione di una narrativa coloniale riguardante l'Africa Orientale all'apice del ventennio fascista. La pubblicità e gli imballaggi della pasta mostrarono visivamente l'adesione dell'industria alimentare italiana ai progetti coloniali del regime. In particolare, si vedrà come le pubblicità dei pastifici presentassero l'Africa orientale come qualcosa che poteva essere “consumato” dagli italiani. L'articolo discute anche del rapporto tra colonialismo e società italiana odierna, e lo fa attraverso un'indagine di quanto di quel periodo è rimasto nella cultura della pasta di oggi, per esempio nel packaging. Ritengo che questi due aspettino vadano analizzati insieme, allo scopo di giungere ad una nuova lettura della storia dell'industria alimentare italiana che metta insieme la ricerca esistente sull'agricoltura fascista, particolarmente quella imperiale, con la storia delle aziende alimentari italiane e la loro attività oltre i confini patri. A ben vedere, quello di cui si discute in questo articolo è l'evoluzione dell'identità nazionale italiana, analizzata attraverso i prodotti alimentari, in un contesto internazionale.

Keywords

BarillapastaFascismcolonialismimperialismAfrica Orientale Italiana (AOI)East Africa
Type
Research Articles
Information
Modern Italy , Volume 28 , Issue 2 , May 2023 , pp. 97 - 126
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for the Study of Modern Italy

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References

References

The Archivio Storico Barilla (ASB) is part of the Musei d'Impresa chain. Located in Pedrignano, near Parma, Italy, the archive contains over 60,000 documents related to the history of the company, from 1877 to the present day. Also in Parma, the Biblioteca Gastronomica Academica Barilla houses a collection of hisotircal menus and cookbooks.Google Scholar
Angelini, F. ND. ‘Attività colonizzatrici in AOI: Confederazione Fascista dei lavoratori dell'agricoltura, Progetto di costituzione di “Legionari Rurali” per la colonizzazione contadina dell'AOI’, letter to Armando Maugini. AOI: f. 1772. Istituto di Agricoltura per l'Oltremare, Florence, Italy.Google Scholar
Angelini, F. 1936. ‘Aspetti della valorizzazione dell impero: tecnici ed industrie: fondamenntali fattori di successo. Uno sguardo a quelle che erano le principali eesportazioni etiopiche – Caffè e pelli.’ Il Corriere eritreo, December.Google Scholar
Cappi Bentivegna, F. 1943. ‘Quelli che ritornano’. Annali d'Africa: 41–51.Google Scholar
Di Savoia, A. 1938. ‘Il regime alimentare in AOI: La disciplina della panificazione’. Reproduction of Telegrams from Royal Minister of East Africa, n. 50015. 2 January 1938 and n. 695. 5 June 1938. L'Autarchia Alimentare, October: 40–42.Google Scholar
Il Corriere eritreo 1936: ‘Disponendo machine fabbricazione pasta all'uovo’. December.Google Scholar
Istituto Coloniale Italiano. 1920. ‘Atti del Convegno Nazionale Coloniale per il dopo guerra delle colonie’. 15–21 January. Rome: Tipografia dell'Unione.Google Scholar
Lantini, F. 1939. ‘I problemi della autarchia alimentare.’ L'Autarchia Alimentare. January:7–8.Google Scholar
L'Autarchia Alimentare. 1938. ‘Il popolo italiano avrà il pane necessario alla sua vita!’ L'Autarchia Alimentare. August: 14–15.Google Scholar
League of Nations. 1936. ‘Proposal IV’. The League from Year to Year: 1935. Geneva: The League of Nations.Google Scholar
Massi, E. 1939. ‘La funzione economica dei cereali minori nell'AOI’. L'Autarchia Alimentare July: 74.Google Scholar
Visco, S. 1938. ‘Cereali e l'Impero’. L'Autarchia Alimentare August: 16-17.Google Scholar
Alberoni, F. 2013. Pietro Barilla. Milan: Rizzoli, 2013.Google Scholar
Amatori, F. 1992. Storia della Lancia: Impresa, Tecnologie, Mercati, 1906–1969. Milan: Fabbri.Google Scholar
Baer, G. 1967. The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banca d'Italia. 2011. ‘Italian National Accounts, 1861–2011’. Quaderni di Storia Economica (Economic History Working Papers), edited by A. Baffigi, 18.Google Scholar
Barrera, G. 1996. Dangerous Liaisons: Colonial Concubinage in Eritrea, 1890–1941. Doctoral thesis, Northwestern University, IL, USA.Google Scholar
Cardoza, A. 1983. Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901–1926. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Legacy Library.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carillo, M. 2020. ‘Agricultural Policy and Long-Run Development: Evidence from Mussolini's Battle for Grain’. The Economic Journal, May.Google Scholar
Carreras, A. 1999. Un ritratto quantitativo dell'industria italiana. In Storia d'Italia. Annali 15. L'industria, edited by Amatori, F., Bigazzi, D., Giannetti, R. and Segreto, L., 179–272. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Catalano, F. 1969. L'Economia italiana di Guerra. Milan: Istituto nazionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione.Google Scholar
Celli, C. 2013. Economic Fascism: Primary Sources on Mussolini's Crony Capitalism. New York: Axios.Google Scholar
Chiapparino, F. 1998. ‘Tra polverizzazione e concentrazione. L'industria alimentare dall'Unità al periodo tra le due guerre’. Storia d'Italia. Annali 13. L'alimentazione, edited by Capatti, A., 205–268. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Ciarlo, D. 2011. Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corban, R. 2022.‘Bitter Harvest: Wheat and War in Mussolini's Mediterranean, 1915–1945’. Doctoral dissertation. Department of History. Columbia University. In Progress.Google Scholar
Corner, P. 1975. Fascism in Ferrara: 1915–1925. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cresti, F. 1996. Oasi di italianità. La Libia della colonizzazione agraria tra fascismo, guerra e indipendenza (1935–1956). Milan: Società Editrice Internazionale.Google Scholar
Di Collerado Mels, P.R. 2021. Africa Orientale Italiana 1940–1941: la fine di un impero. Rome: Soldiershop Publishing.Google Scholar
Falasca-Zamponi, S. 1997. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy. Studies on the History of Society and Culture 28. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuller, M. 2007. Moderns Abroad: Architecture, Cities and Italian Imperialism. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonizzi, G. ed. 2003. ‘Communications in the Fascist Period: the Single-brand Stores’. In Barilla: One Hundred and Twenty-five Years of Advertising and Communication. Vol. I. 1877–1945. Parma: Barilla Alimentare.Google Scholar
Helstosky, C. 2004a. Garlic and Oil: Politics and Food in Italy. Oxford: Berg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helstosky, C. 2004b. ‘Fascist Food Politics: Mussolini's Policy of Alimentary Sovereignty.’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies 9 (1): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labanca, N. 2002. ‘Impero’. Dizionario del fascismo I, A-K, edited by De Grazia, V. and Luzzatto, S., 659–662. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Larebo, H. M. 1994. The Building of an Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia, 1935–1941. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Laudan, R. 2013. Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McCann, J. 1995. People of the Plow: An Agricultural History of Ethiopia, 1800–1990. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
McClintock, A. 1995. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Context. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
McCray, L.K. 2019. Feed Sacks: The Colourful History of a Frugal Fabric. New York: Uppercase.Google Scholar
McLean, E. 2018. Mussolini's Children: Race and Elementary Education in Fascist Italy. Omaha: University of Nebraska Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messina, S.A. Conca. 2015. ‘Pasta in Local and Global Contexts. A Difficult Challenge for Italian Enterprises’. Revue française d'historie économique: 102–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nützenadel, A. 1997. Landwirtschaft, Staat un Autarkie. Agrarpolitik im faschistischen Italien, 1922–1943. Berlin: Max Niemeyer.Google Scholar
Nützenadel, A. 2001. ‘Economic Crisis and Agriculture in Fascist Italy, 1927–1935’. Rivista di Storia Economica, new series, 3: 289–312.Google Scholar
Pergher, R. 2018. Mussolini's Nation-empire: Sovereignty and Settlement in Italy's Borderlands, 1922–1943. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ponzanesi, S. 2005. ‘Beyond the Black Venus: Colonial Sexual Politics and Contemporary Visual Practices’. In Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory, edited by Andall, J. and Duncan, D.. London: Peter Lang,Google Scholar
Preti, D. 1982. ‘Per una storia agraria e del malessere agrario dell'Italia fascista: la Battaglia del Grano’. In Le Campagne Emiliane in Periodo Fascista, edited by Legnani, M., Petri, D. and Rochat, G.. Bologna: CLUE.Google Scholar
Rodanò, C. 1935. ‘Pasta alimentare’. Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani. Rome: Treccani.Google Scholar
Rochat, G. 1971. Militari e politici nella preparazione della campagna d'Etiopia. Milan, FrancoAngeli.Google Scholar
Saraiva, T. 2018. Fascist Pigs: Technoscientific Organisms and the History of Fascism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Sbacchi, A. 1997. Legacy of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. 2011. Material Nation: A Consumer's History of Modern Italy. trans. Daphne Hughes and Andrew Newton. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. 2014. A tavola! Gli italiani in 7 pranzi. Rome: Laterza.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. and Mazhar, N. G.. 2016. Food and Foodways in Italy from 1861to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Segre, L. 1982. La ‘battaglia’ del grano. Milan: Clesav.Google Scholar
Segreto, L. 1988. ‘Barilla, Riccardo’. Dizionario Bibliografico degli Italiani. 34.Google Scholar
Segreto, L. 2019. I Feltrinelli: Storia di una dinastia imprenditoriale (1854–1942). Milan: Feltrinelli.Google Scholar
Sòrgoni, B. 1988. Parole e corpi: antropologia, discorso giuridico e politiche sessuali interrazziali nella colonia Eritrea, 1890–1941. Naples: Liguori.Google Scholar
Taddia, I. 1996. Autobiografie africane. Il colonialismo nelle memorie orali. Milan: FrancoAngeli.Google Scholar
Terefe, H. 2005. Contested Space: Transformation of Inner-City Market Areas and Users’ Reaction in Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Doctoral Thesis: Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, July.Google Scholar
Welch, R.N. 2016. Vital Subjects: Race and Biopolitics in Italy, 1860–1920. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willson, P. 1993. The Clockwork Factory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Willson, P. 2002. Peasant Women and Politics in Fascist Italy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Zaccaria, M. 2018. ‘Feeding the War: Canned Meat Production in the Horn of Africa and the Italian Front.’ In The First World War from Tripoli to Addis Ababa. 1911–1924, edited by Bekele, S., Chelati Dirar, U., Volterra, A., and Zaccaria, M.. Centre français des études éthiopiennes, open source ID: 10.4000/books.cfee.1619.Google Scholar
Zaccaria, M. 2019. ‘Not a Hectare of Land Shall Remain Uncultivated This Year! Food Provision for Italy and the Role of the Colonies 1917–1918’. Afriche e orienti. Special issue ‘Counting the Cost of War: the Great War's Impact on Africa’, edited by K. Pallaver and M. Zaccaria. 3: 25–41.Google Scholar
Zappi, E Gentili. 1991. ‘The First Results of Mobilization’ and ‘Years of Progress, Years of Action’. In If Eight Hours Seem Too Few: Mobilization of Women Workers in the Italian Rice Fields, 100–166. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
The Archivio Storico Barilla (ASB) is part of the Musei d'Impresa chain. Located in Pedrignano, near Parma, Italy, the archive contains over 60,000 documents related to the history of the company, from 1877 to the present day. Also in Parma, the Biblioteca Gastronomica Academica Barilla houses a collection of hisotircal menus and cookbooks.Google Scholar
Angelini, F. ND. ‘Attività colonizzatrici in AOI: Confederazione Fascista dei lavoratori dell'agricoltura, Progetto di costituzione di “Legionari Rurali” per la colonizzazione contadina dell'AOI’, letter to Armando Maugini. AOI: f. 1772. Istituto di Agricoltura per l'Oltremare, Florence, Italy.Google Scholar
Angelini, F. 1936. ‘Aspetti della valorizzazione dell impero: tecnici ed industrie: fondamenntali fattori di successo. Uno sguardo a quelle che erano le principali eesportazioni etiopiche – Caffè e pelli.’ Il Corriere eritreo, December.Google Scholar
Cappi Bentivegna, F. 1943. ‘Quelli che ritornano’. Annali d'Africa: 41–51.Google Scholar
Di Savoia, A. 1938. ‘Il regime alimentare in AOI: La disciplina della panificazione’. Reproduction of Telegrams from Royal Minister of East Africa, n. 50015. 2 January 1938 and n. 695. 5 June 1938. L'Autarchia Alimentare, October: 40–42.Google Scholar
Il Corriere eritreo 1936: ‘Disponendo machine fabbricazione pasta all'uovo’. December.Google Scholar
Istituto Coloniale Italiano. 1920. ‘Atti del Convegno Nazionale Coloniale per il dopo guerra delle colonie’. 15–21 January. Rome: Tipografia dell'Unione.Google Scholar
Lantini, F. 1939. ‘I problemi della autarchia alimentare.’ L'Autarchia Alimentare. January:7–8.Google Scholar
L'Autarchia Alimentare. 1938. ‘Il popolo italiano avrà il pane necessario alla sua vita!’ L'Autarchia Alimentare. August: 14–15.Google Scholar
League of Nations. 1936. ‘Proposal IV’. The League from Year to Year: 1935. Geneva: The League of Nations.Google Scholar
Massi, E. 1939. ‘La funzione economica dei cereali minori nell'AOI’. L'Autarchia Alimentare July: 74.Google Scholar
Visco, S. 1938. ‘Cereali e l'Impero’. L'Autarchia Alimentare August: 16-17.Google Scholar
Alberoni, F. 2013. Pietro Barilla. Milan: Rizzoli, 2013.Google Scholar
Amatori, F. 1992. Storia della Lancia: Impresa, Tecnologie, Mercati, 1906–1969. Milan: Fabbri.Google Scholar
Baer, G. 1967. The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banca d'Italia. 2011. ‘Italian National Accounts, 1861–2011’. Quaderni di Storia Economica (Economic History Working Papers), edited by A. Baffigi, 18.Google Scholar
Barrera, G. 1996. Dangerous Liaisons: Colonial Concubinage in Eritrea, 1890–1941. Doctoral thesis, Northwestern University, IL, USA.Google Scholar
Cardoza, A. 1983. Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901–1926. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Legacy Library.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carillo, M. 2020. ‘Agricultural Policy and Long-Run Development: Evidence from Mussolini's Battle for Grain’. The Economic Journal, May.Google Scholar
Carreras, A. 1999. Un ritratto quantitativo dell'industria italiana. In Storia d'Italia. Annali 15. L'industria, edited by Amatori, F., Bigazzi, D., Giannetti, R. and Segreto, L., 179–272. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Catalano, F. 1969. L'Economia italiana di Guerra. Milan: Istituto nazionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione.Google Scholar
Celli, C. 2013. Economic Fascism: Primary Sources on Mussolini's Crony Capitalism. New York: Axios.Google Scholar
Chiapparino, F. 1998. ‘Tra polverizzazione e concentrazione. L'industria alimentare dall'Unità al periodo tra le due guerre’. Storia d'Italia. Annali 13. L'alimentazione, edited by Capatti, A., 205–268. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Ciarlo, D. 2011. Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corban, R. 2022.‘Bitter Harvest: Wheat and War in Mussolini's Mediterranean, 1915–1945’. Doctoral dissertation. Department of History. Columbia University. In Progress.Google Scholar
Corner, P. 1975. Fascism in Ferrara: 1915–1925. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cresti, F. 1996. Oasi di italianità. La Libia della colonizzazione agraria tra fascismo, guerra e indipendenza (1935–1956). Milan: Società Editrice Internazionale.Google Scholar
Di Collerado Mels, P.R. 2021. Africa Orientale Italiana 1940–1941: la fine di un impero. Rome: Soldiershop Publishing.Google Scholar
Falasca-Zamponi, S. 1997. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy. Studies on the History of Society and Culture 28. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuller, M. 2007. Moderns Abroad: Architecture, Cities and Italian Imperialism. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonizzi, G. ed. 2003. ‘Communications in the Fascist Period: the Single-brand Stores’. In Barilla: One Hundred and Twenty-five Years of Advertising and Communication. Vol. I. 1877–1945. Parma: Barilla Alimentare.Google Scholar
Helstosky, C. 2004a. Garlic and Oil: Politics and Food in Italy. Oxford: Berg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helstosky, C. 2004b. ‘Fascist Food Politics: Mussolini's Policy of Alimentary Sovereignty.’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies 9 (1): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labanca, N. 2002. ‘Impero’. Dizionario del fascismo I, A-K, edited by De Grazia, V. and Luzzatto, S., 659–662. Turin: Einaudi.Google Scholar
Larebo, H. M. 1994. The Building of an Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia, 1935–1941. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Laudan, R. 2013. Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McCann, J. 1995. People of the Plow: An Agricultural History of Ethiopia, 1800–1990. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
McClintock, A. 1995. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Context. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
McCray, L.K. 2019. Feed Sacks: The Colourful History of a Frugal Fabric. New York: Uppercase.Google Scholar
McLean, E. 2018. Mussolini's Children: Race and Elementary Education in Fascist Italy. Omaha: University of Nebraska Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messina, S.A. Conca. 2015. ‘Pasta in Local and Global Contexts. A Difficult Challenge for Italian Enterprises’. Revue française d'historie économique: 102–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nützenadel, A. 1997. Landwirtschaft, Staat un Autarkie. Agrarpolitik im faschistischen Italien, 1922–1943. Berlin: Max Niemeyer.Google Scholar
Nützenadel, A. 2001. ‘Economic Crisis and Agriculture in Fascist Italy, 1927–1935’. Rivista di Storia Economica, new series, 3: 289–312.Google Scholar
Pergher, R. 2018. Mussolini's Nation-empire: Sovereignty and Settlement in Italy's Borderlands, 1922–1943. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ponzanesi, S. 2005. ‘Beyond the Black Venus: Colonial Sexual Politics and Contemporary Visual Practices’. In Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory, edited by Andall, J. and Duncan, D.. London: Peter Lang,Google Scholar
Preti, D. 1982. ‘Per una storia agraria e del malessere agrario dell'Italia fascista: la Battaglia del Grano’. In Le Campagne Emiliane in Periodo Fascista, edited by Legnani, M., Petri, D. and Rochat, G.. Bologna: CLUE.Google Scholar
Rodanò, C. 1935. ‘Pasta alimentare’. Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani. Rome: Treccani.Google Scholar
Rochat, G. 1971. Militari e politici nella preparazione della campagna d'Etiopia. Milan, FrancoAngeli.Google Scholar
Saraiva, T. 2018. Fascist Pigs: Technoscientific Organisms and the History of Fascism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Sbacchi, A. 1997. Legacy of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. 2011. Material Nation: A Consumer's History of Modern Italy. trans. Daphne Hughes and Andrew Newton. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. 2014. A tavola! Gli italiani in 7 pranzi. Rome: Laterza.Google Scholar
Scarpellini, E. and Mazhar, N. G.. 2016. Food and Foodways in Italy from 1861to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Segre, L. 1982. La ‘battaglia’ del grano. Milan: Clesav.Google Scholar
Segreto, L. 1988. ‘Barilla, Riccardo’. Dizionario Bibliografico degli Italiani. 34.Google Scholar
Segreto, L. 2019. I Feltrinelli: Storia di una dinastia imprenditoriale (1854–1942). Milan: Feltrinelli.Google Scholar
Sòrgoni, B. 1988. Parole e corpi: antropologia, discorso giuridico e politiche sessuali interrazziali nella colonia Eritrea, 1890–1941. Naples: Liguori.Google Scholar
Taddia, I. 1996. Autobiografie africane. Il colonialismo nelle memorie orali. Milan: FrancoAngeli.Google Scholar
Terefe, H. 2005. Contested Space: Transformation of Inner-City Market Areas and Users’ Reaction in Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Doctoral Thesis: Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, July.Google Scholar
Welch, R.N. 2016. Vital Subjects: Race and Biopolitics in Italy, 1860–1920. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willson, P. 1993. The Clockwork Factory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Willson, P. 2002. Peasant Women and Politics in Fascist Italy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Zaccaria, M. 2018. ‘Feeding the War: Canned Meat Production in the Horn of Africa and the Italian Front.’ In The First World War from Tripoli to Addis Ababa. 1911–1924, edited by Bekele, S., Chelati Dirar, U., Volterra, A., and Zaccaria, M.. Centre français des études éthiopiennes, open source ID: 10.4000/books.cfee.1619.Google Scholar
Zaccaria, M. 2019. ‘Not a Hectare of Land Shall Remain Uncultivated This Year! Food Provision for Italy and the Role of the Colonies 1917–1918’. Afriche e orienti. Special issue ‘Counting the Cost of War: the Great War's Impact on Africa’, edited by K. Pallaver and M. Zaccaria. 3: 25–41.Google Scholar
Zappi, E Gentili. 1991. ‘The First Results of Mobilization’ and ‘Years of Progress, Years of Action’. In If Eight Hours Seem Too Few: Mobilization of Women Workers in the Italian Rice Fields, 100–166. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar