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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 June 2018
Vicarious liability has a greater reach within both professional and amateur football than previously thought. The newly-expanded doctrine has opened up vicarious liability for amateur players, and within grassroots teams. A greater range of torts may also now trigger vicarious liability, such as acts of on and off-pitch violence. The Football Association will need to review the scope of the National Game Insurance Scheme, which significantly lags behind this expanded exposure to vicarious liability.
Examining vicarious liability in the context of football also reveals significant problems with the current approach to vicarious liability within unincorporated associations. This category developed in the context of institutional abuse within highly-organised religious institutions; it does not mean that this category of vicarious liability should be applied to grassroots sporting organisations in the same way. For instance there is scope to apply a different test at stage two. It is argued that the courts will need to tighten up this category so as not to unnecessarily expose members of grass roots organisations to vicarious liability which is able to be executed against their personal assets. Both amateur and professional clubs may also wish to carefully consider their selection of players.
This paper was presented at ‘The Not-So Beautiful Game’ Seminar, Newcastle University (8 May 2017) organised by Dr Christine Beuermann. The author would like to thank participants for their comments, and also the anonymous referees for their comments on this paper.
1 Figures taken from http://www.thefa.com/news/2015/jan/29/football-participation-on-rise (last accessed 23 May 2018).
2 Football Association ‘The FA national game, state of the game in numbers 2015’ at 1–5.
3 Coles, R ‘Football as a surrogate religion’ in Hill, M (ed) A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain (London: SCM, 1975) p 3Google Scholar.
4 Eg Ekstrand, J, Hägglund, M and Waldén, M ‘Injury incidence and injury patterns in professional football’ (2009) 45 British Journal of Sports Medicine 553CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
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6 What has been written generally occurs within broader chapters on sports law/torts: eg Cox, N ‘Civil liability for foul play in sport’ (2003) 54 NILQ 351Google Scholar at 366–367; James, M Sports Law (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2nd edn, 2013) pp 81–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gardiner, S et al. Sports Law (Abingdon: Routledge, 4th edn, 2012) pp 505–506Google Scholar; Gardiner, S Sports Law in the United Kingdom (Netherlands: Wolters Kluwer, 2014) pp 34–35Google Scholar. For a notable exception see James, M and McArdle, D ‘Player violence, or violent players? Vicarious liability for sports participants’ (2004) 12 TLR 131Google Scholar. Note that non-player employee liability is already dealt with in much of the vicarious liability literature, and (non-player) volunteer liability has been dealt with elsewhere.
7 Ibid, James and McArdle, predates the application of the Lister v Hesley Hall [2001] UKHL 22, [2002] 1 AC 215 jurisprudence to the sports field and also many significant changes to the law of vicarious liability.
8 Gravil v Carroll [2008] EWCA Civ 689, [2008] ICR 1222; James, above n 6, p 81.
9 [1985] 1 WLR 866 at 867 per Lord Donaldson MR; James, above n 6, p 69.
10 Simms v Leigh Rugby Football Club Ltd [1969] 2 All ER 923; Wright v Cheshire County Council [1952] 2 All ER 789; Cleghorn v Oldham (1927) 43 TLR 465; Wooldridge v Sumner [1963] 2 QB 43; Wilks v Cheltenham Homeguard Motor Cycle & Light Car [1971] 1 WLR 668; Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850.
11 Brewer v Delo [1967] 1 Lloyd's Rep 488; Lewis v Brookshaw [1970] 120 NLJ 413; there is also an Irish case: McComiskey v McDermott [1974] IR 75.
12 [1985] 1 WLR 866 at 867 per Lord Donaldson MR.
13 James, above n 6, p 69.
14 Eg Kevan, T, Adamson, D and Cottrell, S Sports Personal Injury: Law and Practice (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 2002)Google Scholar.
15 Cox, above n 6, at 354.
16 Baroness Grey-Thompson ‘Duty of care in sport: independent report to government’ (April 2017) at 26.
17 Jones, M (ed) Clerk and Lindsell on Torts (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 21st edn, 2014)Google Scholar paras [3-119]–[3-120].
18 [2004] EWCA Civ 814, [2004] 1 WLR 2844 at [21].
19 Wattleworth v Goodwood Road Racing Co Ltd [2004] EWHC 140 (QB), [2004] PIQR P25.
20 Caldwell v Maguire [2001] EWCA Civ 1054, [2002] PIQR P6.
21 Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850; Compensation Act 2006, s 1; Social Action, Responsibility and Heroism Act 2015, s 2; cf Mulheron, R ‘Legislating dangerously: bad samaritans, good society, and the Heroism Act 2015’ (2017) 80 MLR 88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goudkamp, J ‘Restating the common law? The Social Action, Responsibility and Heroism Act 2015’ (2017) 37 LS 577Google Scholar.
22 Caldwell v Maguire [2001] EWCA Civ 1054, [2002] PIQR P6; Condon v Basi [1985] 1 WLR 866; Griffith-Jones, D and Randall, N ‘Civil liability arising out of participation in sport’, ch H7 in Lewis, A and Taylor, J Sport: Law and Practice (Haywards Heath: Bloomsbury, 3rd edn, 2014)Google Scholar para [H7.48].
23 Eg McCord v Cornforth and Swansea City Football Club (1997) Times, 11 February; Watson and Bradford City Football Club v Gray and Huddersfield Town Football Club (1998) Times, 26 November.
24 Eg KR v Royal Sun Alliance [2006] EWCA Civ 1454, [2007] Lloyd's Rep IR 368; Beresford v Royal Exchange Assurance [1938] AC 586.
25 Beloff, M et al. Sports Law (Oxford: Hart, 2nd edn, 2012)Google Scholar para [5.82].
26 Note Elliott v Saunders and Liverpool Football Club (10 June 1994, unreported) High Court.
27 Griffith-Jones and Randall, above n 22, para [H7.2].
28 [2003] EWCA Civ 318, [2003] 1 WLR 1607.
29 James and McArdle, above n 6, at 144, fn 32.
30 Cane, P Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 7th edn, 2006) p 230CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
31 Eg Mattis v Pollock [2003] EWCA Civ 887, [2003] 1 WLR 2158; MM v Newlands Manor School [2007] EWCA Civ 21, [2007] ELR 256 (junior rugby: overage, oversize player selected for team).
32 Woodland v Swimming Teachers Association [2013] UKSC 66, [2014] AC 537. See generally Stevens, R ‘Non-delegable duties and vicarious liability’ in Neyers, J, Chamberlain, E and Pitel, S (eds) Emerging Issues in Tort Law (Oxford: Hart, 2007) ch 13Google Scholar; Morgan, J ‘Vicarious liability for independent contractors?’ (2015) 31 PN 235Google Scholar.
33 Smoldon v Whitworth & Nolan, [1997] ELR 249; Allport v Wilbraham [2004] EWCA Civ 1668.
34 Vowles v Evans and Welsh Rugby Union [2003] EWCA Civ 318, [2003] 1 WLR 1607.
35 Van Oppen v Clerk to the Bedford Charity Trustees [1990] 1 WLR 235
36 Watson v British Boxing Board of Control Ltd [2001] QB 1134; Wattleworth v Goodwood Road Racing Co Ltd, above n 19; A gar v Hyde [2000] HCA 41, 201 CLR 552. Note also the Charleroi litigation concerning a claim by a Belgian club against FIFA in relation to player injury during an international match; this led to FIFA and UEFA making provision for compensation to clubs in future international competitions.
37 Various Claimants v Catholic Child Welfare Society (‘CCWS’) [2012] UKSC 56, [2013] 2 AC 1 at [19] per Lord Phillips.
38 Cox v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKSC 10, [2016] AC 660 at [1] per Lord Reed.
39 Morgan, P ‘Vicarious liability on the move’ (2013) 129 LQR 139Google Scholar, approved by Allen & Others v The Chief Constable of the Hampshire Constabulary [2013] EWCA Civ 967 at [17] per Gross LJ.
40 Particularly Bazley v Curry [1999] 2 SCR 534.
41 [2001] UKHL 22, [2002] 1 AC 215.
42 [2002] UKHL 48, [2003] 2 AC 366 at [23] per Lord Nicholls.
43 Ibid.
44 CCWS; Cox, above n 38; Mohamud v Wm Morrison Supermarkets Plc [2016] UKSC 11, [2016] AC 677.
45 ST v North Yorkshire County Council [1999] LGR 584.
46 Eg Keppel Bus Company v Sa'ad bin Ahmad [1974] 1 WLR 1082; Daniels v Whetstone Entertainments [1962] 2 Lloyd's Rep 1; Warren v Henlys Ltd [1948] 2 All ER 935; Rose, F ‘Liability for an employee's assaults’ (1977) 40 MLR 420CrossRefGoogle Scholar. There were, however, some rare exceptions to this rule: Fennelly v Connex South Eastern Ltd [2001] IRLR 390; Vasey v Surrey Free Inns Plc [1996] PIQR P373; Pettersson v Royal Oak Hotel [1948] NZLR 136.
47 Mattis v Pollock [2003] EWCA Civ 887, [2003] 1 WLR 2158; Bernard v The Attorney General of Jamaica [2004] UKPC 47, [2005] IRLR 398; Wallbank v Wallbank Fox Designs Ltd [2012] EWCA Civ 25, [2012] IRLR 307; Yeung Mei Hoi v Tam Cheuk Shing [2015] 2 HKLRD 483, [2015] HKEC 403; Brown v Robinson [2004] UKPC 56; Mohamud v Wm Morrison Supermarkets Plc [2016] UKSC 11, [2016] AC 677.
48 Morgan, P ‘Revising vicarious liability: a commercial perspective’ [2012] LMCLQ 175Google Scholar, accepted in JGE v English Province of Our Lady of Charity [2012] EWCA Civ 938, [2013] QB 722 at [56] per Ward LJ.
49 [2002] UKHL 48, [2003] 2 AC 366,
50 [2010] EWCA Civ 256, [2010] 1 WLR 1441.
51 [2010] EWCA Civ 1207, [2011] IRLR 343.
52 [2012] EWCA Civ 938, [2013] QB 722.
53 [2012] UKSC 56, [2013] 2 AC 1.
54 Cox, above n 38.
55 Elliott v Saunders and Liverpool Football Club, above n 26; McCord v Cornforth and Swansea City Football Club (1997) Times, 11 February; Watson and Bradford City Football Club v Gray and Huddersfield Town Football Club (1998) Times, 26 November; Pitcher v Huddersfield Town Football Club (2001) WL 753397; Gaynor v Blackpool Football Club [2002] CLY 3280.
56 Ibid, Pitcher v Huddersfield Town Football Club and Gaynor v Blackpool Football Club.
57 Sharp v Highland and Islands Fire Board [2005] SLT 855.
58 Leebody v Ministry of Defence [2001] CLY 4544.
59 Well known examples include: Rangers’ Duncan Ferguson's head-butt of Raith Rovers’ John McStay, which resulted in a three-month prison sentence (‘Soccer player jailed for foul play’ The Independent, 11 October 1995); Nottingham Forest's Kenny Burns’ deliberate head-butt of Arsenal's Richie Powling Burns (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-3272919/Nottingham-Forest-legend-film-star-Kenny-Burns-reveals-tricks-trade-d-hacksaw-studs-stuck-better-skin-nowadays-physical-contact-shop-Asda.html#ixzz4gm83DLIx (last accessed 23 May 2018)); Wimbledon's Vinnie Jones’ famous testicle squeeze of Newcastle's Paul Gascoigne; Manchester United's Roy Keane's infamous tackle of Manchester City's Alf Inge Haaland (Keane claims that he intended to hurt Haaland, but not to injure him) (https://www.theguardian.com/football/2014/oct/06/roy-keane-alf-inge-haaland-book (last accessed 23 May 2018)).
60 Beloff et al, above n 25, para [5.81].
61 Racz v Home Office [1994] 2 AC 45; Makanjuola v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [1989] 2 Admin LR 214.
62 See above n 46.
63 Rogers v Bugden and Canterbury Bankston Club [1993] Aust Torts Rep 181.
64 [2008] EWCA Civ 689, [2008] ICR 1222.
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid, at 1231–1232.
67 For discussion of these justifications see Stevens, R Torts and Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007) pp 258–259CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brodie, D ‘Enterprise liability: justifying vicarious liability’ (2007) 27 OJLS 493CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Brodie, D Enterprise Liability and the Common Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Giliker, P ‘Making the right connection: vicarious liability and institutional responsibility’ [2009] TLJ 76Google Scholar; Giliker, P Vicarious Liability in Tort, A Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Atiyah, P Vicarious Liability in the Law of Torts (Butterworths: London, 1967)Google Scholar; Morgan, P ‘Recasting vicarious liability’ (2012) 71 CLJ 615CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Neyers, J ‘A theory of vicarious liability’ (2005–2006) 43 Alta L Rev 287Google Scholar.
68 http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28023882 (last accessed 23 May 2018).
69 Wallbank v Wallbank Fox Designs Ltd [2012] EWCA Civ 25, [2012] IRLR 307; Yeung Mei Hoi v Tam Cheuk Shing [2015] 2 HKLRD 483, [2015] HKEC 403.
70 Mattis v Pollock [2003] EWCA Civ 887, [2003] 1 WLR 2158.
71 Maga v Birmingham Roman Catholic Archdiocese Trustees [2010] EWCA Civ 256, [2010] 1 WLR 1441; N v Chief Constable of Merseyside Police [2006] EWHC 3041 (QB); P Morgan ‘Distorting vicarious liability’ (2011) 74 MLR 932.
72 [2015] EWHC 2862 (QB).
73 At [136]–[141].
74 At [148].
75 [2014] EWCA Civ 116, [2014] 2 All ER 990.
76 [2015] EWHC 2862 (QB) at [149].
77 At [46].
78 At [150].
79 [2012] EWCA Civ 25, [2012] IRLR 307.
80 At [35].
81 Mohamud at [35] per Treacy LJ.
82 At [161].
83 At [161].
84 [2016] UKSC 11, [2016] AC 677.
85 At [44]–[46].
86 At [47].
87 Ibid.
88 Plunkett, J ‘Taking stock of vicarious liability’ (2016) 132 LQR 556Google Scholar; Morgan, P ‘Certainty in vicarious liability: a quest for a chimaera?’ (2016) 75 CLJ 202CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ryan, D ‘“Close connection” and “akin to employment”: perspectives on 50 years of radical developments in vicarious liability’ (2016) 56 IJ 239Google Scholar; Chan, S ‘Hidden departure from the Lister close connection test’ [2016] LMCLQ 352Google Scholar.
89 Prince Alfred College Incorporated v ADC [2016] HCA 37.
90 Bellman v Northampton [2016] EWHC 3104 (QB).
91 [1948] 2 All ER 935.
92 McKendrick, E ‘Vicarious liability and independent contractors – a re-examination’ (1990) 53 MLR 770CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 784; Kidner, R ‘Vicarious liability: for whom should the “employer” be liable?’ (1995) 15 LS 47Google Scholar; Deakin, S, Johnston, A and Markesinis, B Markesinis and Deakin's Tort Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6th edn, 2007) p 698Google Scholar; Weir, T An Introduction to Tort Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn, 2006) pp 107–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stevens, above n 67, p 268; JGE at [59] per Ward LJ. Cf Atiyah, above n 67, p 33.
93 Eg Mersey Docks and Harbour Board v Coggins & Griffith (Liverpool) Ltd [1947] AC 1; Viasystems (Tyneside) Ltd v Thermal Transfer (Northern) Ltd [2005] EWCA Civ 1151, [2006] QB 510.
94 Kennedy v Pender & Narooma Rugby League Football Club (2002, unreported) NSW District Court (cited by Kevan, Adamson, and Cottrell, above n 14, pp 16–17).
95 Whilst in Vowles v Evans the Welsh Rugby Union accepted that they would be vicariously liable for an amateur referee's torts, such a tactical litigation concession (as similarly made in Maga in the context of a priest/bishop relationship) is not the same as accepting that this is an employment relationship, but rather that the relationship may be sufficient to trigger vicarious liability. In the light of the subsequent case of Gravil this concession made in Vowles may have been open to question at the time of the case as a matter of law, but this concession may have been necessary to maintain the goodwill of amateur referees, and their continued volunteering.
96 Above n 64.
97 At [41].
98 Harris, J ‘A sporting chance’ (2012) 162 NLJ 1248Google Scholar at 1249.
99 Watts, P and Reynolds, F (eds) Bowstead and Reynolds on Agency (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 20th edn, 2016)Google Scholar para [8-176].
100 Eg Ormrod v Crossville [1953] 1 WLR 1120; and Launchbury v Morgans [1973] AC 127, but not exclusively, see for instance League Against Cruel Sports Ltd v Scott and Others [1986] QB 240; Moores v Bude-Stratton Town Council [2001] ICR 271; and S v Attorney General [2003] NZCA 149.
101 Launchbury v Morgans [1973] AC 127 at 135 per Lord Wilberforce.
102 Giliker Vicarious Liability in Tort, above n 67, p 110.
103 [1953] 2 Lloyd's Rep 613.
104 Note Judge Thomas, at 618.
105 The author is not alone in suggesting that this category may generate vicarious liability for amateur sportspersons, see Griffith-Jones and Randall, above n 22, para [H7.17].
106 Cox, above n 38; NA v Nottinghamshire County Council [2015] EWCA Civ 1139, [2016] QB 739; A v Trustees of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society [2015] EWHC 1722 (QB).
107 See Morgan, above n 67, at 625–640.
108 [2012] EWCA Civ 938, [2013] QB 722.
109 [2012] UKSC 56, [2013] 2 AC 1.
110 At [18].
111 At [47].
112 At [49]; note Kidner, above n 92.
113 Cox, above n 38.
114 At [22].
115 At [24].
116 Moody, S ‘Policing the voluntary sector: legal issues and volunteer vetting’ in Dunn, A (ed) The Voluntary Sector, The States and the Law (Oxford: Hart, 2000) pp 53–54Google Scholar; Garton, J The Regulation of Organised Civil Society (Oxford: Hart, 2009) p 100Google Scholar; Charity Commission ‘Charities and Insurance’ (CC49, 2012) 5.
117 Ibid, Garton, p 100.
118 Garton, above n 116, states that given the present justifications for vicarious liability: risk creation or enhancement, there can be vicarious liability for volunteers. cf D Brodie Enterprise Liability and the Common Law, above n 67, p 12, who also writing prior to these decisions states ‘the acts of volunteers who are not employees do not give rise to vicarious liability’. No reasons are given for this statement.
119 Note Morgan, above n 67.
120 United States Restatement (Third) of Agency, 2006, § 7.07 (3), 82 ALR 3d 1213. See for instance Scottsdales Jaycees v Superior Court of Maricopa County (1972) 17 Ariz App 571, 499 P2d 185; Garcia v Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund (1976) 51 App Div 2d 987, 380 NYS2d 676; Baxter v Morningside Inc (1974) 10 Wash App 893, 521 P2d 946; Trinity Lutheran Church Inc v Miller (1983) Ind App 451, NE2d 1099; South Australia Volunteers Protection Act 2001, s 5(1).
121 [1975] IR 192. Note also Hickey v McGowan [2017] IESC 6.
122 Scottish Law Commission Unincorporated Associations Scot Law Com No 217 (Edinburgh: SLC, 2009) paras [1.4], [2.2]; Stewart, N, Campbell, N, and Baughan, S The Law of Unincorporated Associations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar para [1.09].
123 [2008] EWCA Crim 1970, [2009] PTSR 119 at [11].
124 [1973] AC 15.
125 [1986] Ch 20.
126 [2003] 2 AC 366.
127 Ashworth v Stanwix 121 ER 606, (1860) 3 El & El 701.
128 [1903] 1 KB 81.
129 Atiyah, above n 67, p 117.
130 Atiyah, above n 67, p 3.
131 Chapter 11.
132 Giliker Vicarious Liability in Tort, above n 67, p 104.
133 [2017] IESC 6.
134 Ibid, at [46] per O'Donnell J; Morgan, above n 39.
135 Bawtree, D and Kirkland, K Charity Administration Handbook (London: Bloomsbury, 5th edn, 2013)Google Scholar para [2.14].
136 See http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/local-news/rugby-clubs-60k-appeal-crippling-2496284 (last accessed 23 May 2018); http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/blog/mlarsen/25-03-2014/governance-why-getting-right-legal-structure-your-club-so-important (last accessed 23 May 2018).
137 At [34].
138 At [34]–[35].
139 Atiyah, above n 67, pp 12–28. For further discussion of vicarious liability theory see Stevens, pp 257–259; Neyers; Giliker Vicarious Liability in Tort pp 227–254; Brodie, all above n 67.
140 At [21].
141 Various Claimants v Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools [2010] EWCA Civ 1106.
142 At [42].
143 Ibid.
144 The author briefly advanced this point in Morgan, above n 39, which has received extrajudicial support from Lord Hope in ‘Tailoring the law on vicarious liability’ (2013) 129 LQR 514 at 526.
145 Stapleton, J ‘Tort, insurance and ideology’ (1995) 58 MLR 820CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Morgan, J ‘Tort, insurance and incoherence’ (2004) 67 MLR 384CrossRefGoogle Scholar; cf Merkin, R ‘Tort, insurance and ideology: further thoughts’ (2012) 75 MLR 301CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For discussion see Merkin, R and Steele, J Insurance and the Law of Obligations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013) ch 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
146 Baker, T ‘Liability insurance as tort regulation: six ways that liability insurance shapes tort law in action’ (2005) 12 Conn Ins LJ 1Google Scholar.
147 Eg Lewis, R ‘Insurance and the tort system’ (2005) 25 LS 85Google Scholar.
148 For criticisms of loss spreading justifications see Stevens, pp 258–259 and Neyers, 296–297, both above n 67. Note that vicarious liability as a modern doctrine pre-dates (non-marine) liability insurance (Ibbetson, D A Historical Introduction to the Law of Obligations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) pp 69–70Google Scholar; Baker, J An Introduction to English Legal History (London: Butterworths, 4th end, 2002) p 410Google Scholar, and the acceptance of loss spreading (Witt, J The Accidental Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004)Google Scholar).
149 Football Association ‘Standard Code of Rules 2016–17’ Rule 22. The Rules are mandatory for all Competitions at Step 7 of the National League System and below, and the FA Women's Pyramid excluding the FA Women's Super League.
150 Football Association ‘Standard Code of Rules for Youth Competitions 2016–17’ Rule 22.
151 See https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/feb/17/mandatory-inurance-amateur-footballers-fa-grassroots-ngis (last accessed 23 May 2018).
152 Bluefin, NGIS, ‘Group Personal Accident Insurance’ available at http://assets.bluefingroup.co.uk/media/filer_public/e5/c6/e5c628fa-4633-4a68-b3cf-29fec30bd946/1692-0217_ngis_adult_basic_and_youth_basic_pa_brochure_2017to18_final.pdf (last accessed 23 May 2018); Lancashire FA News, http://www.lancashirefa.com/news/2017/apr/mandatory-personal-accident-insurance-in-youth-football-from-201718 (last accessed 23 May 2018).
153 Ibid, ‘Group Personal Accident Insurance’, Summary of Benefits.
154 Above n 151.
155 Bluefin, NGIS ‘Legal Liability Insurance’ Countycover Policy Summary at 4, 8, see http://assets.bluefingroup.co.uk/media/filer_public/b4/f8/b4f8fa1a-27a8-49f8-9d93-28603acb6ab1/1725-0217_ngis__countycover_brochure_2017-18.pdf (last accessed 23 May 2018).
156 [1969] 2 All ER 923.
157 Bluefin, NGIS, ‘Legal Liability Insurance’ Countycover Policy Summary, Exclusions, p 6.
158 Ibid.
159 Ibid, p 7.
160 Heidt, R ‘The unappreciated importance, for small business defendants, of the duty to settle’ (2010) 62 Me L Rev 75Google Scholar at 92; Baker, T ‘Blood money, new money, and the moral economy of tort law in action’ (2001) 35 Law and Soc'y Rev 275CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cane, above n 30, pp 224–225.
161 See generally Grey-Thompson, above n 16, at 26.
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