Ocean acidification (OA) is caused by increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, which dissolves in seawater to produce carbonic acid. This carbonic acid reduces the availability of dissolved aragonite needed for production of some invertebrate exoskeletons with potentially severe consequences for marine calcifier populations. There is a lack of public information on OA with less than 1% of press coverage on OA compared with climate change; OA is not included in UK GCSE and A Level specifications and textbooks; environmental campaigners are much less active in campaigning about OA compared with climate change. As a result of the lack of public awareness OA is rarely discussed in the UK Parliament. Much more public education about OA is needed so that people can respond to the urgent need for technological and lifestyle changes needed to massively reduce carbon dioxide emissions.

The Splanchnotrophidae is a family of highly modified endoparasitic copepods known to infest nudibranch or sacoglossan sea slug hosts. Most splanchnotrophid species appear to be specific to a single host, but some were reported from up to nine different host species. However, splanchnotrophid taxonomy thus far is based on external morphology, and taxonomic descriptions are, mostly, old and lack detail. They are usually based on few specimens, with intraspecific variability rarely reported. The present study used molecular data for the first time to test (1) the current taxonomic hypotheses, (2) the apparently strict host specificity of the genus Ismaila and (3) the low host specificity of the genus Splanchnotrophus with regard to the potential presence of cryptic species. Phylogenetic analyses herein used sequences of the barcoding region of the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene from 40 specimens representing 13 species of five genera. Species delimitation approaches include distance and barcoding gap analyses, haplotype networks and diagnostic nucleotides. Molecular results are largely compatible with the commonly accepted, morphology-based taxonomy of the Splanchnotrophidae. Strict host specificity could be confirmed for two Ismaila species. COI analyses also supported the idea that Splanchnotrophus angulatus is host-promiscuous. In Ismaila, morphology seems more suitable than barcoding to display speciation events via host switches in a recent Chilean radiation. In Splanchnotrophus, some genetic structure suggests ongoing diversification, which should be investigated further given the inadequate morphology-based taxonomy. The present study thus supports the presence of two different life history strategies in splanchnotrophids, which should be explored integratively.

A Lagrangian study was conducted in a eutrophic estuary (Guanabara Bay, Brazil) to investigate in situ plankton trophodynamics under the influence of the cold, nutrient-rich South Atlantic Coastal Water in a short-term temporal variability (scale of hours). We tested the hypothesis that the base of the plankton food web is composed of small cells and that microzooplankton is the main consumer of this assemblage. Samples of pico-, nano- and microplankton, as well as copepods, were collected during spring, when the entry of upwelling water in the Bay is commonly observed, and near the surface every 3 h during the 1-day sampling period. Potential predation of dinoflagellates, ciliates, copepod nauplii, copepodites and adult copepods was estimated based on predator-prey size relationships. The main trophic links in the Guanabara Bay food web for the period analysed were nanophytoplankton-copepods, nanophytoplankton-ciliates, and autotrophic dinoflagellates-heterotrophic dinoflagellates. According to microphytoplankton availability, adult copepods could not satisfy their food requirement, and nanophytoplankton represented an important supplementary food source. In fact, diel variations of nano- and microplankton biomass were opposite to that of copepods suggesting predation control by the latter on the former. The trophodynamics of Guanabara Bay, under the influence of upwelling water, resulted in marked differences from other eutrophic estuaries around the world.

It has increasingly been recognized that defence of microalgae against predator grazing is a passive response to increase algal population density by excreting chemicals with a change in physical properties. As common biological pollutants in the cultivation of the microalgae, the community-based method was used to identify the ability of two microalgae, Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis oceanica, to defend against protozoan grazing. Mature protozoan samples with 14-day age were collected, using microscopy glass slides, in coastal waters of the Yellow Sea, northern China. For both microalgae, a gradient of concentrations was designed as 100 (control), 104, 105, 106 and 107 cell ml−1, respectively. Results showed that both test algal species represented strong defence effects on protozoan grazing, especially at high density levels. Species richness, abundance and taxonomic distinctness of the protozoan assemblages showed a sharp decrease at high concentration level (107 cell ml−1) of both algae. A significant variation in protozoan community structures was found to be driven by the gradient of the algal concentrations. The paired taxonomic distinctness indices of the protozoan communities showed an increasing trend of departure from the expected taxonomic pattern with increase of algal concentrations. Based on the results, we suggest that the community-based bioassay might be used as a feasible tool for identifying defence against protozoan grazing of microalgae.

Modiolus modiolus L. (horse mussel) reefs are a priority marine habitat of high conservation value that is currently listed as endangered and/or threatened across its European distribution. Population structure, density or shell morphology may influence the biodiversity of a reef, either directly or indirectly. Thus, such metrics are important considerations for successful conservation management of these biodiversity hotspots. Population structure, shell morphology and growth rates were examined in M. modiolus reefs across the UK range of the habitat to examine differences between key populations, including those near the Lleyn Peninsula in Wales (southern range), off Port Appin in Western Scotland (mid-range) and in Scapa Flow in the Orkney Isles, Scotland (northern range). Additionally, the influence of physical conditions (temperature and tidal flow) to growth rate and predicted maximum shell length for each population was examined. Growth rates were determined using acetate peels of sectioned shells. Lower juvenile abundance was observed in Scapa Flow. Small, narrow-shaped shells were found to be characteristic of North Lleyn mussels, and larger, globular-shaped shells were characteristic of mussels in Scapa Flow and off Port Appin. Mussels in Scapa Flow were slower growing, yet reached a longer asymptotic length (L∞) than mussels of Port Appin and North Lleyn. Growth curves from sites within this study were analysed with other published data. A trend of higher L∞ at higher latitudes and at lower flow rates was observed. Variations in growth and age are discussed in relation to flow regimes, connectivity to other reefs, density and latitude.

Investigation of parasites and diseases affecting molluscs of ecological and economic interest is critical for the management of native stocks and aquaculture. In recent years, much attention has been devoted to investigating the World Organisation for Animal Health listed infectious diseases, so that communities can be prepared to attend public health emergencies and avoid severe income losses. In this context, the health status of Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck, 1819 was analysed in two aquaculture sites (Strunjan Bay and Piran Bay, Slovenia), and in four natural mussel beds (Adriatic Croatia International Marinas Pula and Rovinj and St Catherine, Croatia; Marina Koper, Slovenia) along the coast of the northern Adriatic Sea. The mussels were sampled in February and April 2014, and processed for histological examination of several endosymbionts and pathogens that frequently occur in mytilid mussels. Endosymbionts and pathogens were not detected in farmed mussels. Prokaryotic inclusion bodies, the protozoan Nematopsis, Ancistrocoma-like ciliates, haplosporidian-like plasmodia, turbellarian Urastoma cyprinae, and basophilic inclusion bodies were observed in digestive gland cryosections of wild mussels from the coastal region of the northern Adriatic. Fungal spores of Psilocybe sp., Ulocladium sp. and Alternaria sp. were detected between the digestive tubules based on their morphology. Diagnostic PCR did not reveal infection with Marteilia refringens during the studied period, neither in wild nor farmed mussels. We confirmed the site effects on prevalence of infected mussels. Thus, we can conclude that wild areas are more exposed to endobionts and parasites than aquaculture sites.

This study characterizes the abundance and spatial distribution of siphonophores between the Trinidad Channel (50°06′S) and the Strait of Magellan (52°45′S) in southern Chile, during October–November 2009. Ten species were identified, of which Agalma elegans, Rosacea plicata and Sphaeronectes fragilis are new records for this region. Dominant species showed similar dominance values e.g. Lensia conoidea (26.3%), Dimophyes arctica (24.6%), Lensia meteori (22.2%) and Muggiaea atlantica (20.7%). Eudoxids of L. conoidea and D. arctica represented 97.3% of all eudoxids collected and they were mainly collected in estuarine waters. The highest densities were found in estuarine waters (high vertical stratification and low temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen values). On the other hand, the lowest densities were found in coastal areas influenced by permanent influx of Sub-Antarctic waters from the Pacific (greater instability and vertical mixing, higher temperatures, salinity and dissolved oxygen values). Temperature and dissolved oxygen were the most important environmental variables. In general, all the dominant species showed a positive association with temperature and a negative association with dissolved oxygen (with the exception of L. meteori). The vertical distribution showed that M. atlantica was mainly distributed in the first 50 m, in association with estuarine waters, while L. conoidea, L. meteori and D. arctica were mainly found in the deeper layer (50–200 m) and in association with modified Sub-Antarctic waters. The comparison of the results obtained in the springs of 1996 and 2009 showed a significant increase in abundance.

The compilation of data on alien Sipuncula species reported from the Mediterranean Sea to date yields a total of eight species belonging to four families. Four species have become established in the area, while two species are classified as casual and two as cryptogenic. The pathways of the introduction of alien Sipuncula species were shipping and the Suez Canal. The eastern basin had the higher number of alien Sipuncula species (seven species) mainly due to its proximity to the Suez Canal and dense shipping traffic. Among these species, Aspidosiphon (A.) mexicanus has a wide distributional range in the region, but was considered as a cryptogenic species. The majority of alien Sipuncula species were found on soft subtrata in the region. Brief descriptions of the alien Sipuncula species and their distributional and ecological characteristics are given.

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes were used to describe an estuarine mangrove food web in New Caledonia, SW Pacific. Isotopic values were measured for all components of the ecosystem, from various organic matter (OM) sources to predators. Primary producers showed δ13C values from −32.29‰ (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) to −24.67‰ (mouth particulate organic matter), whereas δ15N values ranged from 1.48‰ (Avicennia marina) to 10.17‰ (Eichomia crassipes). Two potential organic matter sources, i.e. the mangrove species and E. crassipes, appeared not to be directly used by consumers although were indirectly entering the food web through particulate and sedimentary organic matter pools (POM and SOM). Overall, invertebrates showed C-depleted and N-depleted values compared with fish, highlighting their lower trophic level. The highest trophic levels in this estuarine mangrove were represented by carangids (δ15N of 11.24‰ for Caranx sp. and 10.81‰ for Carangoides fulvoguttatus) and gerrids (δ15N of 10.42‰ for Gerres filamentosus). Two main pathways of organic matter were identified from sources of OM to end-members, i.e. from estuarine POM and SOM toward gerrids and from marine POM towards carangids. The food chain comprised three or four trophic levels, depending on the pathway of organic matter. The position of some consumer species within the reconstructed food web might imply that an important source of organic matter was probably missing, i.e. microphytobenthos. Despite an obvious connection, the role of river inputs as potential drivers of mangrove food web dynamics appeared important only during the wet season.

This study reports the morphometric relationships and relative growth of 20 uncommon bivalve species collected along the Algarve coast (southern Portugal). Morphometric relationships were established between three linear variables (shell length, height and width) and one ponderal variable (total weight) and the relative growth between variables (isometry vs allometry) was analysed in order to assess their variation throughout ontogeny. In addition, morphometric indices (elongation, compactness, convexity and density) based on ratios of those linear and ponderal variables were calculated in order to further characterize morphologically the bivalve species. A total of 2512 individuals belonging to nine bivalve families were analysed, comprising specimens with broad ranges in both shell length (11.8–109.0 mm SL) and total weight (0.2–354.6 g TW). All morphometric relationships were highly significant (P < 0.001) and displayed invariably high correlation coefficients (r = 0.727–0.998). Among a total of 60 morphometric relationships, 27 isometries, 25 positive allometries and 8 negative allometries were registered. The morphometric indices displayed a remarkable variation among taxa, reflecting the high morphological diversity of these miscellaneous bivalve species. Discriminant analysis provided a spatial visualization of the species morphometric variables that further evidenced their main shape features, the distinctness between some species and families (e.g. Pharidae and Cardiidae) and the morphological resemblance among some species belonging to other families (e.g. Veneridae and Tellinidae). Overall, this information is useful and has practical application in diverse research fields, including studies on systematics and taxonomy, physiology, biology, ecology, fisheries assessment and management.

Relatively little is known about the distribution and diversity of marine mammals around offshore anthropogenic structures. We present results obtained from incidental sightings of marine mammals around oil and gas installations located 200 km off the Danish coast. A total of 131 sightings corresponding to about 288 animals were reported between May 2013 and May 2016. A total of seven marine mammal species were identified, five cetaceans: harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), white-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris), killer whale (Orcinus orca), pilot whales (Globicephala spp.) and two species of pinnipeds: harbour (Phoca vitulina) and grey seals (Halichoerus grypus). The most sighted species were harbour porpoise (41%) and minke whale (31%). Relative counts and biodiversity of marine mammals observed around installations corresponded well with the expected distribution in the central North Sea. Several taxon-specific correlations were identified between number of sightings and environmental parameters (depth and latitude) or installation characteristics (installation aerial footprint). Furthermore, 85% of sightings were made during spring and summer and it is unclear whether the pattern observed reflected a natural seasonal occurrence of marine mammals in the area or an effect of reduced effort during autumn and winter. Despite the potential caveats, results obtained during this programme provide an insight into the relationship between marine mammals and oil and gas offshore installations in the North Sea.

To study zooplankton–phytoplankton relationships in the diatom-dominated plankton communities of the northern Adriatic we performed feeding experiments with diatoms and zoea I larvae of the brachyuran Xantho poressa. We found that zoea I of X. poressa feed on diatoms of different forms (centric, pennate, colony forming, single celled, with or without setae) and size classes. In a laboratory setup, we presented the zoeas with a mix of diatom species similar to communities observed during blooms regularly found in the northern Adriatic. We report that the grazing activity resulted in a decrease of the relative abundance of the toxic diatom Pseudo-nitzschia calliantha. For the colonial, bloom-forming diatom Skeletonema marinoi our results show a chain length reduction in the presence of zoea I. Of particular interest is the observation that the presence of larvae also resulted in an increased growth rate and abundance of S. marinoi, which resembles bloom induction by grazer presence.

To evaluate the effects of different anthropogenic activities on zooplankton and the pelagic ecosystem, we conducted seasonal cruises in 2010 to assess spatial heterogeneity among the mesozooplankton communities of Xiangshan Bay, a subtropical semi-enclosed bay in China. The evaluation included five different areas: a kelp farm, an oyster farm, a fish farm, the thermal discharge area of a power plant, and an artificial reef, and we aimed to identify whether anthropogenic activities dominated spatial variation in the mesozooplankton communities. The results demonstrated clear spatial heterogeneity among the mesozooplankton communities of the studied areas, dominantly driven by natural hydrographic properties, except in the area near the thermal discharge outlet of the power station. In the outlet area, thermal shock caused by the discharge influenced the mesozooplankton community by decreasing abundance and biomass throughout the four seasons, even causing a shift in the dominant species near the outlet during summer from Acartia pacifica to eurythermal and warm water taxa. Unique features of the mesozooplankton community in the oyster farm may be due to the combined effects of oyster culture and the natural environment in the branch harbour. However, kelp and fish culture, and the construction of an artificial reef did not exert any obvious influence on the mesozooplankton communities up to 2010, probably because of the small scale of the aquaculture and a time lag in the rehabilitation effects of the artificial reef. Thus, our results suggested that the dominant factors influencing spatial variations of mesozooplankton communities in Xiangshan Bay were still the natural hydrographic properties, but the thermal discharge was an anthropogenic activity that changed the pelagic ecosystem, and should be supervised.

Seven-band grouper (Hyporthodus septemfasciatus) is a commercial rocky reef fish in East Asia that has been regarded as a promising species for aquaculture. To investigate the broodstock contributions to offspring for the sustainability of fry production, 62 individuals of H. septemfasciatus from two broodstocks and one offspring population were analysed using fluorescent-AFLP. A total of 602 bands were amplified and 70.10% of them were polymorphic. The numbers of polymorphic loci were 308 (Pbroodstock I = 55.50%) and 356 (Pbroodstock II = 63.12%) in the two broodstocks, and 294 (Poffspring = 52.88%) in the offspring, respectively. The average values of Shannon diversity index (I) and expected heterozygosity (H) were higher in the broodstock (Ibroodstock I = 0.281, Ibroodstock II = 0.244, Hbroodstock I = 0.185, Hbroodstock II = 0.161) than those in the offspring (Ioffspring = 0.243, Hoffspring = 0.161). AMOVA and FST analyses showed that significant genetic differentiation between broodstock and offspring populations, and limited effective broodstock population size has contributed to the offspring. Both STRUCTURE and Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA) also showed the three populations composed of two stocks and most offspring individuals (95.0%) only originated from 44.0% of the individuals of broodstock I, which may have negative effects on sustainable fry production. Therefore, genetic variation between broodstock and offspring should be monitored, and large effective size of broodstock should be employed to ensure the success of commercial breeding programmes. Our data provide a useful genetic basis for future planning of sustainable culture and management of H. septemfasciatus.

This study reports the composition and distribution of demersal megafauna from various north-western Mediterranean submarine areas such as canyons, seamounts and landslides between 60–800 m depth, based on remotely operated vehicle (ROV) observations. From a total of 30 h of video, 4534 faunistic observations were made and analysed in relationship to environmental factors (i.e. topography, substrate type and depth). In addition, anthropogenic impact was quantified by grouping observations in four categories: fishing nets, longlines, trawl marks and other litter. The different targeted environments showed similarities in faunal composition according to substrate, depth and topography. Our results also indicated the presence of anthropogenic impact in all the sampled areas in which litter and trawl marks were the most observed artefacts.

Large-scale green tides of Ulva prolifera occur repeatedly in the Yellow Sea, and the microscopic propagules of U. prolifera play a critical role during the development of green tides. Ulva prolifera propagules and microalgae are both present in seawater and share similar niches, but their potential interactions are poorly understood. Nine species of microalgae were selected to study their interactions with the propagules of U. prolifera (gametes) in laboratory. The results showed that settlement of gametes could be inhibited by some microalgae, such as Alexandrium tamarense, Prorocentrum lima and Karenia mikimotoi, at the cell density of blooming (102–103 cells ml–1). Inversely, the germlings germinated from U. prolifera gametes had negative effects on the microalgae, the inhibition rate ranged from 28 to 66%. Our results demonstrated the complex interactions between microalgae and propagules of green algae, which may influence the formation of green tides and their ecological consequences in the Yellow Sea.

Coralligenous bioconstructions are among the most important Mediterranean habitats for biodiversity maintenance. However some characteristic and sensitive organisms, such as the fan corals, are considered endangered in the international community; indeed, they may be severely damaged by fishing activities causing mechanical damage and increasing sedimentation rate. ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) investigations were carried out in order to characterize different morphological types of coralligenous habitat (rim, bank and shoal) located in the southern Bay of Naples (Italy), and to assess the presence of lost fishing gears and their impact on these benthic communities. A rapid classification of different fishing pressures and impacts was obtained through the development of new, representative and synthetic categories. Image analysis revealed the presence of rich and diversified communities, characterized by several fan coral colonies. However, fishing activity dramatically affects these coralligenous habitats, entangling and covering benthic assemblages and leading to necrosis and to parasitic epibionts growth especially on branched organisms. Monitoring programmes may provide a detailed assessment of coralligenous habitats characterization, distribution and health status. An accurate evaluation of fishing pressure and impact may be considered a useful tool to improve sustainable management of these valuable habitats.

Sowerby's beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens) was previously known in the Mediterranean Sea from a single live stranding of two individuals in the French Riviera. We report here on two live sightings in the western Mediterranean, central-western Tyrrhenian Sea off eastern Corsica (Montecristo Trough) and off eastern Sardinia (Caprera Canyon) in 2010 and 2012, respectively. In both cases single individuals, possibly the same individual, occurred within groups of Cuvier's beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris) suggesting inter-specific interactions. Based on our close observations of mixed-species groups of Sowerby's and Cuvier's beaked whales, we hypothesize that some previous long-distance sightings of beaked whales in the Mediterranean may not be reliably attributed to Z. cavirostris. The present sightings and previous live stranding indicate that the western Mediterranean Sea is the easternmost marginal area of M. bidens within the North Atlantic geographic range. Notes on behaviour are also provided.

Cultivation of the geoduck Panopea zelandica (Quoy & Gaimard, 1835) requires knowledge on embryonic development to produce spat in hatcheries. This study investigated the development of P. zelandica embryos at 15°C and 35 ppt and the optimal sperm:egg ratios for fertilization under hatchery conditions. Panopea zelandica broodstock were induced to spawn by serotonin injection. Sperm and eggs were collected and fertilization was conducted at sperm:egg ratios of: 50:1, 100:1, 500:1, 1000:1 and 10,000:1 over 40 min. The optimal sperm:egg ratio was <500:1 and the normal embryo yield at 3 and 18 h post-fertilization (hpf) ranged from 83–96%. Panopea zelandica eggs (~80 μm diameter) developed the first and second polar bodies within 15–20 and 50–55 min post-fertilization, respectively. The blastula appeared at ~8 hpf, including the XR and XL cells and the presumptive shell field depression. Gastrulation occurred at 12–18 hpf with organic material apparent at the shell field depression. The mid-stage trochophore, which appeared at around 35 hpf had an apical plate with an apical tuft. The shell field spread to form the periostracum, which expanded and folded into right and left segments covering the late trochophore. The early D-stage veliger appeared at 45 hpf with the soft body being enclosed by two valves and the appearance of the velum. These observations will serve as the basis for future analyses of P. zelandica embryogenesis and for optimization of commercial production of D-veliger larvae.