Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T09:17:36.289Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Federal Policy and the Racial Integration of Southern Industry, 1961–1980

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2011

Timothy J. Minchin
Timothy J. Minchin
Affiliation:
University of St. Andrews
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In the last two decades, one of the central debates of civil rights historiography has concerned the role that the federal government played in securing the gains of the civil rights era. Historians have often been critical of the federal government's inaction, pointing out that it was only pressure from the civil rights movement itself that prompted federal action against Jim Crow. Other scholars have studied the civil rights record of the federal government by analyzing a single issue during several administrations. In this vein, there have been studies of the federal government's involvement in areas as diverse as black voting rights and racial violence against civil rights workers. These studies have both recognized the importance of federal intervention and have also been critical of the federal government's belated and half-hearted endorsement of civil rights.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Policy History , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , April 1999 , pp. 147 - 178
Copyright
Copyright © The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. For an overview of the literature concerning the federal government's relationship with the civil rights movement, see Fairclough, Adam, “Historians and the Civil Rights Movement,” Journal of American Studies 24 (12 1990): 387–98, esp. 395-96Google Scholar . On the evolution and implementation of federal civil rights policy, Graham, Hugh Davis, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960-1972 (New York, 1990)Google Scholar , is indispensable. For the federal government's involvement in voting rights, see Lawson, Steven F., Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944-1969 (New York, 1976), esp. 342–46Google Scholar , and In Pursuit of Power: Southern Blacks and Electoral Politics, 1965-1982 (New York, 1985)Google Scholar . For a critical account of th e federal government's failure to act on the issue of racial violence, see Belknap, Michael R., Federal Law and Southern Order: Racial Violence and Constitutional Conflict in the Post-Brown South (Athens, Ga., 1987)Google Scholar . For the negative impact of federal agricultural and welfare policies, see Cobb, James C., “‘Somebody Done Nailed Us on the Cross’: Federal Farm and Welfare Policy and the Civil Rights Movement in th e Mississippi Delta,” Journal of American History 77 (12 1990): 912–36Google Scholar , and idem , The Most Southern Place on Earth: The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional identity (New York, 1992), esp. 230–76Google Scholar . The federal government's failure to act on the civil rights issue is highlighted in Dittmer, John, “The Politics of the Mississippi Movement, 1954-1964,” in Eagles, Charles W., ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, Miss., 1986), 65–93Google Scholar . Other useful books that explore the federal government's involvement in civil rights include: Nieman, Donald G., Promises to JCeep: African-Americans and the Constitutional Order, 1776 to the Present (New York, 1991)Google Scholar , and Win, Frederick M., “We Ain't What We Was”: Civil Rights in the New South (Durham, N.C., 1997)Google Scholar.

2. Zarefsky, David, President Johnson's War on Poverty: Rhetoric and History (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1986), x.Google Scholar

3. For the current pessimistic climate, see Graham, Hugh Davis, “Race, History, and Policy: African Americans and Civil Rights Since 1964,” in Graham, Hugh Davis, ed., Civil Rights in the United States (University Park, Pa., 1994), 12–39, esp. 31-35Google Scholar (quotes on pp. 31 and 35). Pessimistic overall assessments include Pinkney, Alphonso, The Myth of Black Progress (Cambridge, 1984)Google Scholar ; Wilson, William Julius, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago, 1987)Google Scholar.

4. Historians have tended to concentrate on studies of civil rights protest and protest organizations, especially in the period of classic activism, 1955 to 1965. This point is explored in Norrell, Robert J., “One Thing We Did Right: Reflections on the Movement,” in Robinson, Armstead L. and Sullivan, Patricia, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights Studies (Charlottesville, Va., 1991), 65–80, esp. 65-67Google Scholar . Examples of the concentration on protest are numerous, but include: Williams, Juan, Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965 (New York, 1987)Google Scholar ; Fairclough, Adam, To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr. (Athens, Ga., 1987)Google Scholar ; Carson, Clayborne, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981)Google Scholar . The neglect of the economic aspects of the civil rights era is highlighted in Wright, Gavin, “Economic Consequences of the Southern Protest Movement,” inGoogle Scholar, Robinson and , Sullivan, New Directions, 175–83Google Scholar . On the integration of the southern textile industry, Frederickson, Mary provides a good overview in “Four Decades of Change: Black Workers in Southern Textiles, 1941-1981,” in Green, James, ed., Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A ‘Radical America’ Reader (Philadelphia, 1983), 62–82Google Scholar . Two oral history collections also contain some excellent material on black textile workers: Victoria Byerly, Hard Times Cotton Mill Girls: Personal Histories of Womanhood and Poverty in the South (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), 125–60Google Scholar ; Conway, Mimi, Rise, Gonna Rise: A Portrait of Southern Textile Workers (Garden City, N.Y., 1979), 90–128Google Scholar . There has been little historical writing on the paper industry, and the only study of black employment in the industry is Northrup, Herbert R., “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” in Northrup, Herbert R., Rowan, Richard L., Barnum, Darold T., and Howard, John C., Negro Employment in Southern Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Five Industries (Philadelphia, 1970)Google Scholar . Some of the issues raised in this article are treated in greater detail in Minchin, Timothy J., Hiring the Black: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, N.C., forthcoming)Google Scholar.

5. “Negro Employment in the Textile Industry,” ATMI Press Release, April 1969, in Folder 39, Box 12, Wharton School Papers, held at the University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania, hereafter cited as “Wharton School Papers”; Defendant's Proposed Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, dated 1975, Adams v. Dan River Mills, p. 9, U.S. District Court Records held at the Federal Records Center in Philadelphia, hereafter cited asGoogle Scholar“FRC-Philadelphia”; Textile Hi-Lights, 12 1971, 3, June 1978, 3Google Scholar ; , Frederickson, “Four Decades of Change,” 62Google Scholar.

6. Textile Hi-Lights, 04–06 1965, 4, December 1973, 1, 3;Google Scholar“Textile Production in South Soars,” Greensboro Daily News, 17 April 1963Google Scholar , clipping in “Textile Industry Background Data,” folder, Box 7, Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers' Union-North Carolina Joint Board Papers, held at the Southern Labor Archives, Georgia State University, hereafter cited as “ACTWU-NCJB Papers”; EEOC Press Release, 14 December 1966, copy in Series 3, Box 316, Textile Workers' Union of America (TWUA) Papers, held at the State Historical Society, Madison, Wisconsin, hereafter cited as “TWUA Papers”; Phyllis A. Wallace and Maria P. Beckles, “1966 Employment Survey in the Textile Industry of the Carolinas,” EEOC Research Report 1966-11, 19 December 1966, copy in Series 3, Box 316, TWUA Papers, 1.

7. , Northrup, “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” 11, 14-15, 17.Google Scholar

8. Eaton, Adrienne and Kriesky, Jill, “Collective Bargaining in th e Paper Industry: Developments Since 1979,” in Voos, Paula, ed., Contemporary Collective Bargaining in the Private Sector (Madison, Wis., 1994), 30–31Google Scholar ; , Northrup, “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” 22–25Google Scholar ; Hodges, James A., New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville, Tenn., 1986), 32–34Google Scholar.

9. Rowan, Richard L., “The Negro in the Textile Industry,” in Northrup et al., Negro Employment in Southern Industry, 54Google Scholar . Quotation comes from Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd, Leloudis, James, Korstad, Robert, Murphy, Mary, Jones, Lu Ann, and Daly, Christopher P., Like A Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987), 66Google Scholar.

10. Sidney Gibson interview with author on 13 October 1997 in Natchez, Mississippi; “Interview with Mr L.A. Combs, Vice President, Container Corp. of America,” 27 09 1968Google Scholar , Folder 16, Box 45, Wharton School Papers; Continental Can Interview, 14-15 December 1970, Folder 17, Box 45, Wharton School Papers. For the exclusion of black women from southern industries before 1965, see Cobb, James C., The Selling of the South: The Southern Crusade for Industrial Development (Baton Rouge, La., 119Google Scholar.

11. Natnan, Richard P., Jobs and Civil Rights: The Role of the Federal Government in Promoting Equal Opportunity in Employment and Training (Washington D.C., 1969), 13–16.Google Scholar

12. For an exploration of these differences, see Minchin, Timothy J., “‘Color Means Something’.- Black Pioneers, White Resistance, and Interracial Unionism in the Southern Textile Industry, 1957-1980,” Labor History 39 (June 1998): 143–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13. Corinne Lyttle Cannon interview with author on 11 March 1996 in Kannapolis, North Carolina; Ollie Seals interview with author on 24 January 1996 in Columbus, Georgia; Thomas Pharr interview with author on 29 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina. For other similar views, see Robert Lee Gill interview with author on 11 March 1996 in Kannapolis, North Carolina; Alton Collins interview with author on 3 February 1996 in Columbus, Georgia.

14. Gladys Trawick interview with author on 2 February 1996 in Andalusia, Alabama. For textile executives' claim that white workers would walk out if blacks were hired, see Employment on Merit, An Interim Report, “Atlanta Civil Rights Program Employment on Merit Program Reports South eastern Regional Office 1966,” folder, Box labeled “Sout h eastern Regional Office 1966,” American Friends Service Committee Papers, held at the American Friends Service Committee in Philadelphia.

15. Fletcher Beck interview with author on 29 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina; Mae Dawson interview with author on 20 July 1995 in Tarboro, North Carolina.

16. Chuck Spence interview with author on 17 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee; Elvin King interview with author on 14 October 1997 in Moss Point, Mississippi; Wayne Glenn interview with author on 18 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.

17. Willie Ford interview with author on 10 October 1997 in Mobile, Alabama.

18. Leroy Hamilton interview with autho r on 25 July 1997 in Woodbine, Georgia. For other black workers who expressed similar views, see, for example, Deposition of Ulysses Banks, 30 June 1971, Boles v. Union Camp, p. 51, U.S. District Court Records held at the Federal Records Center in East Point, Georgia, hereafter cited as “FRC-East Point”; Deposition of Edward Cox, 20 May 1977, Garrett v. Weyerhauser, pp. 17, 35, FRC-East Point.

19. Butler, Richard J., Heckman, James J., and Payner, Brook, “The Impact of th e Economy and the State on the Economic Status of Blacks: A Study of South Carolina,” in Galenson, David W., ed., Markets in History: Economic Studies of the Past (Cambridge, 1989), 231-346, esp. 239-40, 328–29.Google Scholar

20. Wallace, Phyllis A. and Beckles, Maria P., “1966 Employment Survey in the Textile Industry of the Carolinas,” EEOC Research Report 1966-11, 19 12 1966Google Scholar , copy in Series 3, Box 316, TWUA Papers, pp. 13-17.

21. “The Textile Industry and Negroes in Western South Carolina,” Reel 163, Southern Regional Council Papers, p. 4, held on microfilm at the National Archives-Manuscripts Division in Washington, D.C., hereafter cited as “Southern Regional Council Papers.”

22. George C. Waldrep interview with author on 24 July 1995 in Summerfield, North Carolina; Uniroyal Plant Visit, June 1969, Folder 18, Box 13, Wharton School Papers. For other examples of the view expressed during the Uniroyal visit, see, for example, Fulton Cotton Mills Plant Visit, 3 Jun e 1969, Folder 18, Box 13, Wharton School Papers.

23. Chase Bag Company Questionnaire, Southern TWUA Staff Survey, 15 December 1966, Series 3, Box 316, TWUA Papers; “Textiles: Blacks in the Mills,” Newsweek, 2 November 1970, 50.Google Scholar

24. Trial Testimony of George H. Denton and N. A. Thompson, 9 February 1972, Rogers et al v. International Paper Company, pp. 570, 688, U.S. District Court Records held at the Federal Records Center in Fort Worth, Texas, hereafter cited as “FRC-Fort Worth.”

25. “Interview with L. D. Tullock, Bowater Paper Company, Calhoun, Tennessee, 1 February 1967,” Folder 15, Box 45, Wharton School Papers.

26. In most southern paper mills, promotions were awarded on the basis of job and department seniority, discriminating against black workers, who were segregated into low-paying jobs and departments. For black workers' complaints about the discriminatory impact of seniority provisions, see, for example, Deposition of Moses K. Baker, 10 June 1971, Miller v. Continental Can, pp. 30-31, FRC-East Point; Trial Testimony of Ed Young, August 21-September 20, 1973, Miller v. Continental Can, p. 328, FRC-East Point. For court findings that seniority systems in the paper industry were discriminatory, see, for example, Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, 18 February 1981, Myers v. Gilman Paper Company, p. 13, FRC-East Point

27. Alphonse Williams interview with author on 21 July 1997 in Mobile, Alabama.

28. Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, 27 August 1973, Watlcins v. Scott Paper, pp. 20-21, FRC-East Point. For an excellent overview of the Crown-Zellerbach case, see , Northrup, “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” 95–104Google Scholar . Details of the landmark decision can be found at United States v. Local 189, United Papermalcers and PapenvoWcers, et al., 282 F. Supp. 39. The case files are located at the Federal Records Center in Fort Worth, Texas, Case Number 68-205, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana, 1968.

29. Trial remarks of Jim Youngdahl, 7 February 1972, Rogers v. International Paper, pp. 24-25, FRC-Fort Worth; “3 Unions, Paper Firm Enter Landmark Collective Bargaining Agreement to Increase Negro Job Opportunities,” Labor Press Service, 12 August 1968, Folder 74, Box 19, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department Papers, held at the George Meany Memorial Archives, Silver Spring, Maryland, hereafter cited as “AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department Papers”; G. S. Young to R. M. Hendricks, 16 December 1969, filed as Exhibit 7, Gantlin v. Westwjco, FRC-East Point.

30. Edward C. Sylvester to Ralph W. Kittle, 20 May 1968, Folder 35, Box 45, Wharton School Papers; Ward McCreedy to Ralph W. Kittle, 28 June 1968, Folder 35, Box 45, Wharton School Papers.

31. Charles Spence interview with author on 17 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee; Frank Bragg interview with author on 15 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.

32. For evidence of companies who copied the Jackson agreement, see Deposition of Henry J. Smith, 24 January 1972, Roberts v. St Regis Paper, p. 21, FRC-East Point; Joint Pretrial Document, 24 October 1972, Suggs v. Container Corporation, pp. 4-5, FRC-East Point; Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, 23 August 1979, Watkins v. Scott Paper, p. 21, FRC-East Point. At Scott Paper Company, the agreement specifically noted the importance of federal pressure, citing that the company was introducing the agreement “to comply with the condi tions for continuing to supply federal procurement agencies.” “Memorandum of Understanding,” Folder 13, Box 46, Wharton School Papers.

33. Ed Bartlett interview with autho r on 2 October 1997 in Savannah, Georgia; Jim Gilliland interview with author on 10 October 1997 in Mobile, Alabama.

34. , Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth, 276.Google Scholar

35. Many of the black paperworkers I interviewed were able to use federally driven changes to the seniority system to promote into high-paying jobs in the 1970s and 1980s, jobs that had previously been off-limits t o blacks. See, for example, Willie Ford interview with author on 10 October 1997 in Mobile, Alabama; Thomas McGauley interview with author on 27 July 1997 in St. Marys, Georgia; Bubba McCall interview with author on 15 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee; Leon Moore interview with author on 4 August 1997 in Mobile, Alabama; Robert Hicks interview with author on 22 July 1997 in Bogalusa, Louisiana. All of these workers had started as laborers in the segregated mills of the 1950s but had become millwrights, mechanics, or supervisors after 1968.

36. Several press accounts described how the opening up of textile jobs was stemming black out-migration from the Carolinas. See, for example, “Textile Plants Hiring More Blacks,” Charlotte Observer, 17 08 1969, 1Google Scholar , clipping in Folder 46, Box 13, Wharton School Papers; “Industry in South Woos Negro Labor,” New York Times, 19 May 1969, 1Google Scholar.

37. William Suggs interview with author on 28 July 1995 in Princeville, North Carolina. Many other black workers expressed the same sentiments as Suggs. See, for example: Joe Gaines interview with author on 25 January 1996 in Opelika, Alabama; Thomas Pharr interview with autho r on 29 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina.

38. Cleghorn, Reese, “The Mill: A Giant Step for the Southern Negro,” New York Times Magazine, 9 November 1969, 35Google Scholar ; Laura Ann Pope interview with author on 1 April 1996 in Andrews, South Carolina.

39. “The Mills Are Hiring More Negroes,” Winston-Salem Journal, 26 May 1968Google Scholar , clipping in Folder 58, Box 13, Wharton School Papers; Rozelle, Walter N., “The Mill and the Negro: Let's Tell It Like It Is,” Textile Industries 132:11 (November 1968): 70Google Scholar.

40. Robert B. Lincks interview with author on 17 July 1995 in Greensboro, North Carolina.

41. George C. Waldrep interview with author on 24 July 1995 in Summerfield, North Carolina.

42. The Stevens statement was sent to the large neigboring Dan River Mills, where it was discussed by personnel managers. Companies repeatedly exchanged information on the introduction of African Americans. Dan River was also sent a copy of The Mill Whistle, the company newspaper of nearby Fieldcrest Mills. In the Whistle, Fieldcrest workers were told that integration was occurring because “it is the policy of the company to obey the law, whatever the laws are.” Little, William C. to M. A. Cross, 25 April 1962Google Scholar , “Government Contracts-Correspondence 1961-1962,” folder, Dan River Mills Company Records, held at Dan River Mills Personnel Building, Danville, Virginia, hereafter cited as “Dan River Mills Company Records”; The Mill Whistle, 28 June 1965Google Scholar , “Civil Rights Act-Fair Employment Practices (Correspondence) 1964-1966,” folder, Dan River Mills Company Records.

43. “Textiles: Blacks in the Mills,” Neuisu'eelc, 2 November 1970, 50–51.Google Scholar

44. “Outline for Meetings with Employees,” 24 08 1965Google Scholar , Hill v. Crown-Zellerbach, FRC-Fort Worth; “Outline for R. R. Ferguson for Employee Meetings,” 3 12 1965Google Scholar , Hill v. Croum-Zellerbach, FRC-Fort Worth; “Outline for R. R. Ferguson for Employee Meetings,” 23 12 1965Google Scholar , Hill v. Crown-Zellerbach, FRC-Fort Worth.

45. “Union Meeting with Union Camp Corporation,” 1 09 1967Google Scholar , Exhibit 13, Boles v. Union Camp, FRC-East Point.

46. Chuck Spence interview with author on 17 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.

47. Allen Coley interview with author on 13 October 1997 in Natchez, Mississippi.

48. Frank Bragg interview with author on 15 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee; Plez Watson interview with author o n 19 July 1997 in Mobile, Alabama. For support of Wallace, see especially Chuck Spence interview with author on 17 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.

49. For historical work on the way that white workers turned to Wallace, see Norrell, Robert J., “Labor Trouble: George Wallace and Union Politics in Alabama,” in Zieger, Robert H., ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991), 250–72Google Scholar ; Draper, Alan, Conflict of Interests: Organized Labor and the Civil Rights Movement in the South, 1954-1968 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994), esp. 107–21Google Scholar.

50. Jack Gentry interview with author on 22 July 1997 in Poplarville, Mississippi. Other examples of white boycotts of integrated facilities are detailed in: Larry Funk interview with author on 21 July 1997 in Mobile, Alabama; Richard Hathaway interview with author on 30 September 1997 in Georgetown, South Carolina; Leon Moore interview with author on 4 August 1997 in Mobile, Alabama.

51. J. U. Blacksher to Virgil Pittman, 8 January 1975, Suggs v. Container Corporation, FRC-East Point. The major case brought by black workers who complained about harassment under the , Jackson Memorandum was Stevenson v. International Paper, 516 F.2d 103 (1975)Google Scholar.

52. Hill, Herbert, “Lichtenstein's Fictions: Meany, Reuther, and the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” New Politics 8 (Summer 1998): 90–91.Google Scholar

53. Warren Woods to William E. Pollard, 19 February 1970, Folder 86, Box 17, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department Papers; Remarks of Kent Spriggs at Trial, 30 November 1977, Winfield v. St Joe Paper, p. 305, U.S. District Court Records held on appeal at the United States Court of Appeals, Atlanta, Georgia, hereafter cited as “CA-Atlanta.”

54. “Discrimination Suit Settled By Cannon,” Daily News Record, 13 January 1982Google Scholar , clipping in Hicks v Cannon Mills, FRC-East Point.

55. For the suppor t that Nixon gave to the EEOC, see Berman, William C., America's Right Turn: From Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, 1994), 11Google Scholar . For Nixon's broader approach to civil rights and his “Southern Strategy” to capture the support of whites alienated by integration, see Genovese, Michael A., The Nixon Presidency: Power and Politics in Turbulent Times (Westport, Conn., 1990), 81–88Google Scholar ; Frymer, Paul and Skrentny, John David, “Coalition-Building and the Politics of Electotal Captute During the Nixon Administration: African Americans, Labor, Latinos,” Studies in American Political Development 12 (Spring 1998): 131–61Google Scholar ; Kotloski, Dean J., “Nixon's Southern Strategy Revisited,” Journal of Policy History 10:2 (1998): 207–38Google Scholar.

56. Willie L. Johnson and Rev. Sam Adams to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1 February 1971, Galloway v. Fieldcrest Mills, FRC-East Point; Jesse Broadnax to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 11 March 1971, Galloway v. Fieldcrest Mills, FRC-East Point.

57. Transcript of Trial, 17 July-15 August 1974, Gantlin v. Westvaco, pp. 1290-91, FRC-East Point; Deposition of Charles Munn, 19 March 1979, Munn v. Federal Paperboard, p. 79, FRC-East Point; Leroy Hamilton interview with author on 25 July 1997 in Woodbine, Georgia.

58. Deposition of Tony Neal Jr., 19 October 1971, Roberts v. St Regis Paper, pp. 126, 128-29, FRC-East Point.

59. Alphonse Williams interview with author on 21 July 1997 in Mobile, Alabama; Joe P. Moody interview with author on 12 March 1996 in Roanoke Rapids, Nort h Carolina; Robert Hicks interview with author on 22 July 1997 in Bogalusa, Louisiana.

60. Claim Form of Johnnie L. Robinson, 9 December 1981, Myers v. Gilman Paper, FRC-East Point. For the way that the Civil Rights Act encouraged othe r leaders of black unions to press for equal job opportunities, see Trial Testimony of Thaddeus Russ, 16 May 1978, Winfield v. St Joe Paper, pp. 47-55, CA-Atlanta; Jesse L. Armistead to Leroy Ange, 28 July 1965, Garrett v. Weyerhauser, FRC-East Point. For the origins of the Local 189 litigation, see , Northrup, “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” 97–98Google Scholar.

61. Deposition of Leroy Griffin, 6 February 1978, Garrett v. weyerhauser, p. 26, FRC-East Point.

62. Deposition of Jason Lewis, 9 November 1983, Winfield v. St Joe Paper, p. 19, CA-Atlanta.

63. The importance of the Hall v. Werthan Bag decision is mentioned, for example, in the major textile class action of Adams v. Dan River Mills. See Plaintiffs' Reply Memorandum, 13 February 1975, Adams v. Dan River Mills, p. 3, FRC-Philadelphia. On the importance of pri vate litigation in enforcing Title VII, see Hill, Herbert, “The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: Twenty Years Later,” Journal of InteTgroup Relations 11 (Winter 1983): 45–46Google Scholar . The legal literature on the development and implementation of Title VII law is extensive. Some of the other more important publications are: Blumrosen, Alfred W., Modern Law. The Law Transmission System and Equal Employment Opportunity (Madison, Wis., 1993)Google Scholar ; Hill, Herbert, “The Equal Employment Opportunity Acts of 1964 and 1972: A Critical Analysis of the Legislative History and Administration of the Law,” Industrial Relations Law Journal 2 (Spring 1977): 1–96Google Scholar ; idem, “The New Judicial Perception of Employment Discrimination: Litigation Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” Colorado Law Review 43 (March 1972): 243-68.

64. In the textile case of Lea v. Cone Mills, for example, the main issue was that a Cone Mills plant in Hillsborough, North Carolina, had never hired a black women, even though 30-35 percent of its workforce was female. In 1971, the United States Court of Appeals ruled that the Lea case, brought by a group of blac k women who had been refused jobs at the mill, had “opened the way for employment of Negro women in the Con e Mills plant.” United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit Decision, 29 January 1971, Lea v. Cone Mills, p. 4, FRC-East Point.

65. “Outline of the Decree Entered by the United States District Court on June 25, 1976,” Sledge v. J. P. Stevens, FRC-East Point; Bennett Taylor interview with author on 9 February 1996 in Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina; Sammy Alston interview with author on 9 February 1996 in Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina.

66. Memorandum from Project Director to TEAM Aides, 12 July 1968, Reel 163, Southern Regional Council Papers.

67. For the way that litigation led to the abandonment of many discriminatory practices and an increased amoun t of integration, see, for example, Trial transcript, 10 July 1975, Lewis v. J. P. Stevens, pp. 576–79, FRC-East PointGoogle Scholar ; Deposition of Ellison, Leroy, 17 08 1972, Ellison v. Rock Hill Printing and Finishing Company, p. 18, FRC-East PointGoogle Scholar ; Hearing of 24 February 1976, Sledge v. J. P. Stevens, pp. 92-93, 114, FRC-East PointGoogle Scholar ; Deposition of Benson, Edward Earl Jr 22 November 1977, Garrett v. Weyerhauser, p. 28, FRC-East PointGoogle Scholar ; Hendricks, R. M. to Smith, Charles E., 25 November 1969, filed as Exhibit 85Google Scholar , Gantlin v. Westvaco, FRC-East Point; Claim Form of Sibley, Wilbert D., 1 12 1981, Myers v. Gilman Paper, FRC-East PointGoogle Scholar.

68. List of separate locals in Folder 56, Box 19, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Departmen t Papers; Jesse Whiddon interview with author on 21 July 1997 in Mobile, Alabama; Wayne Glenn interview with author on 18 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee; Roy Wilkins to John P. Burke, 19 April 1960, Folder 74, Box 19, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department Papers.

69. John P. Burke to President and Secretary, 21 February 1963, filed as UPIU Exhibit 8B, Boles v. Union Camp, FRC-East Point; Arnold Brown interview with author on 25 September 1997 in Callaghan, Virginia.

70. For the way that segregated locals locked black workers into th e worst jobs, see, for example, Claim Forms of Jones, George E., Spells, Richard, and Hamilton, Leroy, all 9 12 1981, Myers v. Gilman Paper, FRC-East Point.Google Scholar

71. Joseph P. Tonelli to all international officers, 24 April 1975, filed as Defendant Union's Exhibit 16, Winfield v. St. Joe Paper, CA-Atlanta; Joseph P. Tonelli to all members of the international executive board and to all international representatives, 12 May 1975, filed as Defendant Union's Exhibit 17, Winfield v. St. Joe Paper, CA-Atlanta.

72. , Hill, “Lichtenstein's Fictions,” 83.Google Scholar

73. Tonelli, Joseph P. to all international officers, 24 April 1975, filed as Defendant Union's Exhibit 16, Winfield v. St. Joe Paper, CA-Atlanta.Google Scholar

74. “Fair Employment Practices in Cone Mills,” 15 May 1961, Box 638, TWUA Papers, pp. 5–6Google Scholar ; “Recommendations for an Expanded Southern Organizing Program,” 4 June 1970, Box 652, TWUA PapersGoogle Scholar . Historians have also noted the fact that the influx of blacks into the textile industry encouraged union sentiment. See, for example, Zieger, Robert H., “Textile Workers and Historians,” in Zieger, Robert H., ed., Organized Labor in tKe Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, Tenn., 1991), 49–50Google Scholar ; Frederickson, Mary, “Four Decades of Change: Black Workers in Southern Textiles, 1941-1981,” in Green, James, ed., Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A “Radical America” Reader (Philadelphia, 1983), 62–82Google Scholar.

75. Scott Hoyman to Sol Stetin, 31 December 1974, Box 22, Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers' Union-Southern Regional Office Papers, held at the Southern Labor Archives, Georgia State University; Bruce Raynor interview with author on 28 July 1995 in Greensboro, North Carolina; Nick Atkins interview with author on 22 November 1995 in Atlanta, Georgia. The failure of unionization in the southern textile industry in the 1960s and 1970s is explored in further detail in Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker.

76. The important work carried out by agencies such as the DSA, OFCC, and GSA is highlighted in the files of the AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department. These agencies played an important role in solving many complaints of racial discrimination, often pushing companies to make significant concessions in order to avoid litigation. See, for example, “Settlement Agreement,” 3 June 1970, Folder 81, Box 17, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department PapersGoogle Scholar ; Conciliation Agreement, 30 August 1967, Folder 59, Box 19, AFL-CIO Civil Rights Department Papers. For evidence that federal pressure led directly to the integration of facilities, see, for example, Deposition of Walter Russell Owens, 24 October 1977, Garrett v. Weyerhauser, pp. 37-38, FRC-East Point. For both the importance of government policy and complaints of its inconsistency, see , Northrup, “The Negro in the Paper Industry,” esp. 117–19Google Scholar.

77. Herman Robinson interview with author on 14 October 1997 in Moss Point, Mississippi; Transcript of Proceedings, 21 August 1973-20 September 1973, Miller v. Continental Can, pp. 1730-1732, FRC-East Point; Frank Bragg interview with author on 15 July 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.

78. Leon Moore interview with author on 4 August 1997 in Mobile, Alabama.

79. Ervin Humes interview with author on 1 October 1997 in Georgetown, South Carolina.

80. Oscar Gill interview with author on 30 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina.

81. Oscar Gill interview with author on 30 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina; Johnnie Archie interview with author on 30 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina.

82. James E. Ferguson II interview with author on 14 June 1996 in Charlotte, North Carolina; Julius Chambers interview with author on 28 June 1996 in Durham, North Carolina.

83. Johnnie Archie interview with author on 30 January 1996 in Rock Hill, South Carolina.