Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T22:20:57.782Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Status of and prospects for organic electroluminescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2011

Lewis J. Rothberg  and
Andrew J. Lovinger
Lewis J. Rothberg
Affiliation:
Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974
Andrew J. Lovinger
Affiliation:
Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974
Get access

Abstract

We review the device and materials science behind organic electroluminescent diodes made both using discrete evaporable molecules and spin-cast organic polymers. A great deal of progress has been made in improving the efficiencies and spectral properties of organic light-emitting diodes, and these are now adequate for many applications. More work is necessary to understand the stability and degradation of emissive and charge-transporting organics, but some systems have been shown to be stable for 104 hours at display brightness. Major challenges still face the community in terms of developing satisfactory systems design and processing techniques if organic electroluminescence is to realize either performance or economic advantages over technologies and significantly penetrate the display market. We present an analysis of the suitability of organic light-emitting diodes for various applications, and consider the materials and manufacturing obstacles that must be overcome.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Materials Research , Volume 11 , Issue 12 , December 1996 , pp. 3174 - 3187
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Helfrich, W. and Schneider, W. G., Phys. Rev. Lett. 14, 229–231 (1965).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Tang, C. W. and VanSlyke, S. A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 913–915 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Tang, C. W., VanSlyke, S. A., and Chen, C. H., J. Appl. Phys. 65, 3610–3615 (1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Burroughes, J.H., Bradley, D. D. C., Brown, A. R., Marks, R. N., MacKay, K., Friend, R. H., Burn, P. L., and Holmes, A. B., Nature (London) 347, 539–541 (1990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Bradley, D. D. C., Synth. Met. 54, 401–415 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Burn, P. L., Bradley, D. D. C., Friend, R. H., Halliday, D. A., Holmes, A. B., Jackson, R. W., and Kraft, A., Perkin, J. C. S.Trans. 1, 3225–3231 (1992).Google Scholar
7.Braun, D. and Heeger, A. J., Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 1982–1984 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals, edited by Pope, M. and Swenberg, C. E. (Oxford University Press, New York, 1982).Google Scholar
9.Allen, J.W., J. Lumin. 60, 912–915 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10.Gustafsson, G., Cao, Y., Treacy, G. M., Klavetter, F., Colaneri, N., and Heeger, A. J., Nature (London) 357, 477–479 (1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Tang, C. W., U.S. Patent No. 4 356 429.Google Scholar
12.Dodabalapur, A., Rothberg, L. J., and Miller, T. M., Electron. Lett. 30, 1000–1002 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Kido, J., Nagai, K., and Okamoto, Y., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 40, 1342–1344 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Saito, S., Aminaka, E., Tsutsui, T., and Era, M., J. Lumin. 60, 902–905 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15.Johnson, G.E., McGrane, K.M., and Stolka, M., Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 175–182 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Kim, D. U., Tsutsui, T., and Saito, S., Chem. Lett. 7, 587–588 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Onoda, M., J. Appl. Phys. 78, 1327–1333 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Gebler, D. D., Wang, Y. Z., Blatchford, J. W., Jessen, S. W., Lin, L-B., Gustafson, T. L., Wang, H. L., Swager, T. M., MacDiarmid, A. G., and Epstein, A. J., J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4264–4266 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Burrows, P. E., Sapochak, L. S., McCarty, D. M., Forrest, S. R., and Thompson, M. E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2718–2720 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20.Tsutsui, T., Takada, N., Saito, S., and Ogino, E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 1868–1870 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21.Kido, J., Hayase, H., Hongawa, K., Nagai, K., and Okuyama, K., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2124–2126 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Berggren, M., Gustafsson, G., Inganas, O., Andersson, M. R., Hjertberg, T., and Wennerstrom, O., J. Appl. Phys. 76, 7530–7534 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Kido, J., Hongawa, K., Okuyama, K., and Nagai, K., Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 815–817 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24.Johnson, G. E. and McGrane, K. M., Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 1910, 7–14 (1993).Google Scholar
25.Adachi, C., Tsutsui, T., and Saito, S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 1489–1491 (1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Hamada, Y., Adachi, C., Tsutsui, T., and Saito, S., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, 1812–1816 (1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Kido, J., Kohda, M., Hongawa, K., Okuyama, K., and Nagai, K., Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 227, 277–283 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Sokolik, I., Yang, Z., Karasz, F.E., and Morton, D. C., J. Appl. Phys. 74, 3584–3586 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Hu, B., Karasz, F.E., Morton, D. C., Sokolik, I., and Yang, Z., J. Lumin. 60, 919 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Parker, I.D., Pei, Q., and Marrocco, M., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 1272–1274 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31.Zhang, C., von Seggern, H., Pakbaz, K., Kraebel, B., Schmidt, H-W., and Heeger, A. J., Synth. Met. 62, 35–39 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32.Paar, C., Stampfl, J., Tasch, S., Kreimaier, H., Leising, G., Vestweber, H., Pommerehne, J., Bässler, H., and Scherf, U., Solid State Commun. 96, 167–170 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Era, M., Morimoto, S., Tsutsui, T., and Saito, S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 676–678 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Fujita, S., Yoshie, T., Kohama, K., Kawakami, Y., and Fujita, S., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 32, 1691–1693 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Colvin, V., Schlamp, M., and Alivasatos, A. P., Nature (London) 370, 354–356 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Dabbousi, B. O., Bawendi, M. G., Onitsuka, O., and Rubner, M. F., Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 1316–1318 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Wu, A. P., Jikei, M., Kakimoto, M., Imai, Y., Ukishima, S., and Takahashi, Y., Chem. Lett. 12, 2319–2322 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Williams, G., Moore, A. J., Bryce, M. R., and Petty, M. C., Thin Solid Films 244, 936–938 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39.Nakayama, T., Itoh, Y., and Kakuta, A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 594–595 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
40.Tsutsui, T., Takada, N., and Saito, S., Synth. Met. 71, 2001–2004 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Hunt, N. E. J., Schubert, E. F., Logan, R. A., and Zydzik, G. J., Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2287–2289 (1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42.Dodabalapur, A., Rothberg, L. J., and Miller, T. M., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2308–2310 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Kido, J., Kimura, M., and Nagai, K., Science 267, 1332–1334 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44.Jordon, R. H., Dodabalapur, A., Strukelj, M., and Miller, T. M., Appl. Phys. Lett. (in press).Google Scholar
45.Ohmori, Y., Fujii, A., Uchida, M., Morishima, C., and Yoshino, K., Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 1871–1873 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
46.Tsutsui, T., Lin, C. P., and Saito, S., Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 256, 63–70 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Wang, H. L., Park, J. W., Fu, D. K., Marsella, M. J., Swager, T. M., MacDiarmid, A. G., Wang, Y. Z., Gebler, D. D., and Epstein, A. J., Abst. of Papers of Am. Chem. Soc. 210, 5 (1995).Google Scholar
48.Marks, R. N., Bradley, D. D. C., Jackson, R. W., Burn, P. L., and Holmes, A. B., Synth. Met. 57, 4128–4133 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49.Parker, I.D., J. Appl. Phys. 75, 1656–1666 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Vestweber, H., Pommerehne, J., Sander, R., Mahrt, R. F., Greiner, A., Heitz, W., and Bässler, H., Synth. Met. 68, 263–268 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Kim, H. H., Miller, T. M., Westerwick, E. H., Kim, Y. O., Kwock, E. W., Morris, M. D., and Cerrulo, M., J. Lightwave Technol. 12, 2107–2113 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52.Physics of Semiconductor Devices, edited by Sze, S. M. (John Wiley, New York, 1981).Google Scholar
53.Lampert, M. A. and Mark, P., Current Injection in Solids (Academic Press, New York, 1970).Google Scholar
54.Burrows, P.E. and Forrest, S. R., Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2285–2287 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55.Strukelj, M., Papadimitrakopoulos, F., Miller, T. M., and Rothberg, L. J., Science 267, 1969–1972 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Karg, S., Ph.D. Thesis, Cuviller Verlag, Göttingen, 1995. ISBN 3–89588–153–8.Google Scholar
57.Thompson, M.E., McCarty, D.M., Sapochak, L., Burrows, P. E., and Forrest, S. R., 1995 Digest of LEOS Summer Topical Meetings, p. 9. ISBN 0–7803–2448-X.Google Scholar
58.Ettedgui, E., Razafitrimo, H., Park, K. T., Gao, Y., and Hsieh, B. R., J. Appl. Phys. 75, 7526–7530 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59.Salaneck, W. R. and Bredas, J. L., Synth. Met. 67, 11–14 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60.Yang, Y., Westerweele, E., Zhang, C., Smith, P., and Heeger, A. J., J. Appl. Phys. 77, 694–698 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61.Pei, Q., Yu, G., Zhang, C., Yang, Y., and Heeger, A. J., Science 269, 1086–1088 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Nowak, M. J., Spiegel, D., Hotta, S., Heeger, A. J., and Pincus, P.A., Macromol. 22, 2917–2926 (1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63.Ziemelis, K. E., Hussain, A. T., Bradley, D. D. C., Friend, R. H., Rühe, J., and Wegner, G., Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 2231–2234 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64.Scher, H. and Montroll, E. W., Phys. Rev. B 12, 2455–2477 (1975).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Hosokawa, C., Tokailin, H., Higashi, H., and Kusumoto, T., Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 1322–1324 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66.Karg, S., Dyakunov, V., Meier, M., Riess, W., and Paasch, G., Synth. Met. 67, 165–168 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67.Kepler, R. G., Beeson, P. M., Jacobs, S. J., Anderson, R. A., Sinclair, M. B., Valencia, V. S., and Cahill, P. A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3618–3620 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.VanSlyke, S.A. and Tang, C.W., 1995 Digest of LEOS Summer Topical Meetings, p. 3. ISBN 0–7803–2448-X.Google Scholar
69.Adachi, C., Nagai, K., and Tamoto, N., Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2679–2681 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70.Tsutsui, T., Aminaka, E. I., Fujita, Y., Hamada, Y., and Saito, S., Synth. Met. 57, 4157–4162 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Yang, Y. and Pei, Q., J. Appl. Phys. 77, 4807–4809 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72.Tokuhisa, H., Era, M., Tsutsui, T., and Saito, S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 3433–3435 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Greenham, N. C., Moratti, S. C., Bradley, D. D. C., Friend, R. H., and Holmes, A. B., Nature (London) 365, 628–630 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Brown, A. R., Bradley, D. D. C., Burroughes, J. H., Friend, R. H., Greenham, N. C., Burn, P. L., Holmes, A. B., and Kraft, A., Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2793–2795 (1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.Brown, A. R., Pichler, K., Greenham, N. C., Bradley, D. D. C., and Friend, R. H., Chem. Phys. Lett. 210, 61–65 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76.Yan, M., Rothberg, L. J., Papadimitrakopoulos, F., Galvin, M. E., and Miller, T. M., Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 1104–1107 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Yan, M., Rothberg, L. J., Kwock, E. W., and Miller, T. M., Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1992–1995 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Rothberg, L. J., Yan, M., Son, S., Galvin, M. E., Kwock, E. W., Miller, T. M., Katz, H. E., Haddon, R. C., and Papadimi-trakopoulos, F., Synth. Met. (in press).Google Scholar
79.Hu, B., Yang, Z., and Karasz, F. E., J. Appl. Phys. 76, 2419–2422 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80.Osaheni, J.A. and Jenekhe, S. A., Macromol. 27, 739–742 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81.Samuel, I.D. W., Rumbles, G., and Collison, C. J., Phys. Rev. B 52, R11 573–11 575 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Son, S., Dodabalapur, A., Lovinger, A. J., and Galvin, M. E., Science 269, 376–379 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83.Kersting, R., Lemmer, U., Mahrt, R. F., Leo, K., Kurz, H., Bässler, H., and Göbel, E. O., Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 3820–3823 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Yan, M., Rothberg, L. J., Papadimitrakopoulos, F., Galvin, M. E., and Miller, T. M., Phys. Rev. Lett. 73, 744–746 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85.Greenham, N. C., Brown, A. R., Burroughes, J.H., Bradley, D. D. C., Friend, R. H., Burn, P. L., Kraft, A., and Holmes, A. B., Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 1910, 111–119 (1993).Google Scholar
86.Pichler, K., Halliday, D. A., Bradley, D. D. C., Burn, P. L., Friend, R. H., and Holmes, A. B.. J. Phys. Cond. Matter 5, 7155–7172 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87.Papadimitrakopoulos, F., Konstadinidis, K., Miller, T. M., Opila, R., Chandross, E. A., and Galvin, M. E., Chem. Mater. 6, 1563–1568 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88.Scurlock, R. D., Wang, B., Ogilby, P. R., Sheats, J.R., and Clough, R. L., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 10194–10, 202 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.Cumpston, B. H. and Jensen, K. F., Synth. Met. 73, 195–199 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
90.Scott, J.C., Kaufman, J.H., Brock, P. J., Pietro, R. D., Salem, J., and Goitia, J.A., J. Appl. Phys. 79, 2745 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Zhang, X-M., Higginson, K. A., and Papadimitrakopoulos, F., “Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Quenching in 8-Hydroxyquinoline Aluminum Chelates,” Proc. Fall 1995 MRS Meeting (1996, in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Hamada, Y., Sano, T., Shibata, K., and Kuroki, K., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2 34, L824–826 (1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93.Do, L. M., Han, E. M., Niidome, Y., Fujihara, M., Kanno, T., Yoshida, S., Maeda, A., and Ikushima, A. J., J. Appl. Phys. 76, 5118–5121 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94.Burrows, P. E., Bulovic, V., Forrest, S. R., Sapochak, L. S., McCarty, D. M., and Thompson, M. E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2922–2924 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95.Tsutsui, T. and Saito, S., in Intrinsically Conducting Polymers: An Emerging Technology, NATO ASI series, series E, edited by Aldissi, M. (Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands, 1993), Vol. 246, pp. 123–134.Google Scholar
96. See, e.g., O'Meara, W. C., Information Display 11, 26–28 (1995).Google Scholar
97.Colorimetry, 2nd ed., CIE Publication No. 15.2 (CIE, Vienna 1986).Google Scholar
98.Rothberg, L. J., Dodabalapur, A., and Miller, T. M., 1995 SID Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 717–719.Google Scholar
99. Backlit or reflective passively addressed LC displays are also commonly used for this type of application.Google Scholar
100.Nuese, C. J., Tietjen, J. J., Gannon, J. J., and Gossenger, H. F., J. Electrochem. Soc. 116, 248 (1969).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101.Nakamura, S., 1995 SID Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 713–716.Google Scholar
102.Mauch, R. H., Velthaus, K-O., Hüttl, B., Troppenz, U., and Herrmann, R., 1995 SID Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 720–723.Google Scholar
103.Jordan, R. H., Rothberg, L. J., Dodabalapur, A., and Slusher, R. E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 1997–1999 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
104.Baigent, D. R., Marks, R. N., Greenham, N. C., Friend, R. H., Moratti, S.C., and Holmes, A. B., Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2636–2638 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar