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Western Union, “Spiritual Union,” and European Integration, 1948–1951

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2012

Philip M. Coupland
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Journal of British Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 3 , July 2004 , pp. 366 - 394
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Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 2004

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References

1 Baylis, John, The Diplomacy of Pragmatism: Britain and the Formation of NATO, 1942–49 (Basingstoke, 1993), chap. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Greenwood, Sean, “Ernest Bevin, France and ‘Western Union’: August 1945–February 1946,” European History Quarterly 14 (1984): 319–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Larres, Klaus, “A Search for Order: Britain and the Origins of a Western European Union, 1944–55,” in From Reconstruction to Integration: Britain and Europe since 1945, ed. Brivati, Brian and Jones, Harriet (Leicester, 1993), pp. 72–87Google Scholar; Shlaim, Avi, “Britain and the Origins of European Unity” (Graduate School of Contemporary European Studies, University of Reading, 1978), pp. 86–142Google Scholar; Warner, Geoffrey, “The Labour Governments and the Unity of Western Europe, 1945–51,” in The Foreign Policy of the British Labour Governments, 1945–1951, ed. Ovendale, Ritchie (Leicester, 1984)Google Scholar; Young, John W., Britain, France and the Unity of Europe, 1945–1951 (Leicester, 1984), chaps. 9–14Google Scholar.

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7 See, e.g., Winston Churchill, “Their Finest Hour” (speech, House of Commons, 18 June 1940) and “The Sinews of Peace” (speech, Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., 5 March 1946).

8 Toynbee, Arnold J., Civilization on Trial (London, 1948)Google Scholar; Toynbee, Arnold and Geyl, Pieter, “Is There a Pattern to the Past,” The Listener 39 (15 January 1948): 93–94Google Scholar; Toynbee, Arnold, “Civilisation on Trial,” The Listener 40 (15 July 1948): 75Google Scholar; Toynbee, Arnold, “A Western Tradition Still in the Making,” The Listener 40 (30 September 1948): 489Google Scholar; Butterfield, H., Christianity and History (London, 1949)Google Scholar.

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12 Pringle, Douglas, “Towards a Western European Union,” The Listener 39 (29 January 1948): 163–64Google Scholar; Edelman, Maurice, “Correspondence: Western Union,” New Statesman and Nation 35 (21 February 1948): 155Google Scholar.

13 The Labour party's principles in relation to European integration were spelled out in Feet on the Ground: A Study of Western Union (London, September 1948), pp 19–23Google Scholar.

14 Parliamentary Debates (Hansard): House of Commons, 1948, vol. 446, col. 395.

15 Public Record Office (PRO), CAB129/25: CP(48) 72, “The Threat to Western Civilisation—Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,” 3 March 1948 (my emphasis).

16 PRO, FO953/144, C. F. A. Warner to Orme Sargent, 13 February 1948.

17 PRO, FO953/144, Memo from C.F.A. Warner, 19 February 1948, FO953/144, Notes on the first meeting of the Working Party on “Spiritual Aspects” of Western Union, n.d., ca. February 1948, FO953/148, Minutes of the Working Party on Spiritual Aspects of Western Union, 16 June 1948.

18 PRO, FO800/460: Eur 5/3/48, “Western Union.”

19 PRO, FO800/460: Eur/48/15; Lambeth Palace Library (hereafter LPL), Collins Papers, MSS3290/14–15, F. K. Roberts to J. M. Richardson, 12 March 1948, Roberts to M. Stewart, 12 March 1948.

20 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/16, R. D. C. McAlpine [Foreign Office] to R. Spicer [private secretary, the Treasury], 15 March 1948. There are brief references to Cripps's role in Bryant, Chris, Stafford Cripps: The First Modern Chancellor (London, 1997), pp. 460–61Google Scholar; Burgess, Simon, Stafford Cripps: A Political Life (London, 1999), p. 260Google Scholar; Clarke, Peter, The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps (London, 2002), pp. 529–39Google Scholar.

21 PRO, FO800/460: Eur 5/3/48, “Western Union.”

22 See, e.g., “A Message to the Christian Churches from the Conference,” in The Churches Survey their Task: The Report of the Conference at Oxford, July 1937, on Church, Community and State, ed. Oldham, J. H. (London, 1937), pp. 57–63, esp. p. 60Google Scholar; Mit Brennender Sorge (encyclical of Pope Pius XI on the Church and the German Reich) (14 March 1937).

23 Paton, William, The Church and the New Order (London, 1941), p. 49Google Scholar; Oldham, J. H., The Resurrection of Christendom (London, 1940)Google Scholar.

24 Birn, Donald S., The League of Nations Union, 1918–1945 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 3, 8, 20, 76, 104, 129–37Google Scholar; Mayne, Richard and Pinder, John, eds., with de V. Roberts, John C., Federal Union: The Pioneers (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 10–11, 13–14, 19, 26, 28Google Scholar.

25 Hudson, Darril, The Ecumenical Movement in World Affairs (London, 1969)Google Scholar.

26 Zeilstra, Jurjen A., European Unity in Ecumenical Thinking, 1937–1948 (Zoetermeer, 1995), chap. 3Google Scholar; Peace Aims Group, “The Future of Europe,” Spiritual Issues of the War, no. 230 (30 March 1944).

27 LPL, Fisher Papers, 27/347, Amery to Fisher, 25 January 1946, 27/354: Fisher to Amery, 28 January 1946.

28 LPL, Fisher Papers, 27/370, Churchill to Fisher, 8 March 1947, 27/373: Fisher to Churchill, 11 March 1947.

29 “European and World Peace,” in The Chronicle of Convocation: Being the Proceedings of the Convocation of Canterbury, 15–17 October 1947 (1947), pp. 244, 261, 260.

30 Parliamentary Debates (Hansard): House of Lords, 1948, series 5, vol. 154, cols. 325–6; PRO, CAB129/25, “The Threat to Western Civilisation,” 3 March 1948; LPL, Fisher Papers, 280/63, “Easter Message 1948.”

31 Kirby, Dianne, Church, State and Propaganda: The Archbishop of York and International Relations, a Political Study of Cyril Foster Garbett, 1942–1955 (Hull, 1999), pp. 177–78Google Scholar.

32 LPL, Fisher Papers, 280/73. A similar passage also appeared in “The Archbishop's Letter,” Canterbury Diocesan Notes, no. 233 (November 1948), p. 1.

33 LPL, Fisher Papers, 40/83, Fisher to Amery, 1 October 1948, 44/284–85; 57/1–11, 65/253–59, 78/62–69.

34 National Archives of Scotland (hereafter NAS), CH1/37: 284, Minutes of Meeting on 21 January 1948, in “The Church of Scotland Committee on Church and Nation,” 20 April 1932–20 April 1954, p. 284.

35 Churh of Scotland, “Report of the Committee on Church and Nation to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland,” Reports of the General Assembly with the Legislative Acts, 1948 (Edinburgh, 1948) pp. 291, 292, 322Google Scholar.

36 Free Church Chronicle 2, no. 2 (February 1947): 2Google Scholar; Free Church Chronicle 2, no. 6 (June 1947): 7Google Scholar. See also “Diversity and Unity: Paris Conference 1947,” Federal News, no. 147 (August 1947), pp. 11–14.

37 See, e.g., “The Divided Europeans,” The Tablet (25 January 1947); “A More Hopeful Course” and “Mr Bevin and All Europe,”The Tablet (31 January 1948). Woodruff, Douglas, “Focus on Current Affairs: The Holy See and United Europe,” The Sword 12, no. 154 (January 1952): 88–92Google Scholar; Burgess, Michael, “Political Catholicism, European Unity and the Rise of Christian Democracy,” in Making the New Europe: European Unity and the Second World War, ed. Smith, M. L. and Stirk, Peter M. R., (London, 1990) pp. 142–55Google Scholar; Rhodes, Anthony, The Vatican in the Age of the Cold War (Norwich, 1992)Google Scholar; Kent, Peter C., The Lonely Cold War of Pius XII: The Roman Catholic Church and the Division of Europe (Montreal, 2002)Google Scholar; Kirby, Dianne, ed., Religion and the Cold War (Basingstoke, 2003); chaps. 4–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 LPL, Temple Papers, 58/9, Griffin to Temple, 10 March 1944.

39 “The Unity of Europe,” Westminster Cathedral Chronicle and Diocesan Gazette 42, no. 9 (September 1948): 203–5Google Scholar.

40 See, e.g., Dawson, Christopher, The Making of Europe: An Introduction to the History of European Unity (London, 1946; first published 1932)Google Scholar, Religion and the Rise of Western Culture: The Gifford Lectures, 1948–1949 (London, 1950)Google Scholar, and Understanding Europe (London, 1952)Google Scholar; Ward, Barbara, The West at Bay (London, 1948)Google Scholar, and Faith and Freedom: A Study of Western Society (London, 1954)Google Scholar.

41 Slattery, William, “The Politics of Western Union,” The Christian Democrat 28, no. 6 (June 1948): 38–40Google Scholar; see also Paul Crane, “A Time for Decision,” and Kirwen, J. R., “The Economics of Western Union,” The Christian Democrat 28, no. 6 (June 1948): 33–35, 35–38Google Scholar.

42 Collins, L. John, Faith under Fire (London, 1966), p 135Google Scholar; Collins, Diana, Christian Action (London, 1949), pp. 76–77Google Scholar.

43 “The People and Freedom Group: Annual Report,” People and Freedom (April 1948), p. 4; Barbara Barclay Carter, “Christian Democracy in the West,” The Sword, no. 110 (December 1947), pp. 8–10; Earl of Longford [Pakenham, Frank], Avowed Intent: An Autobiography of Lord Longford (London, 1994), pp. 103–7Google Scholar; Stanford, Peter, Lord Longford: A Life (London, 1995), pp. 208–25Google Scholar.

44 Collins, Christian Action, pp. 22–30, 36; Collins, Faith under Fire, pp. 101–2.

45 Collins, Christian Action, p. 43.

46 Collins, Faith under Fire, p. 120.

47 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/7, Collins to Halifax, 26 February 1948.

48 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/11, Collins to Cripps, 12 March 1948; MSS3290/12–13a, “Plans for a Meeting to Get the Christians in Support of a Union of Western Europe.”

49 Georgetown University Library (GUL), Woodruff Papers 18/12, Collins to Woodruff, 30 March 1948.

50 Collins, Christian Action, p. 77

51 Archives of the Archbishops of Westminster (AAW), Griffin Papers 1/14e, Letter from Collins to unnamed, March 1948.

52 AAW, Griffin Papers 1/14e, Griffin to Cripps, 23 April 1948; LPL , Collins Papers, MSS3290/20, Cripps to unnamed, n.d.; PRO, CAB127/124, Philip Nichols, British Embassy, the Hague, to Cripps, 25 March 1948, Victor Perowne [British Minister to the Holy See] to Stafford Cripps, 1 April 1948; LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/17, Cripps to Collins, n.d.

53 AAW, Griffin Papers 1/14e, Rev. G. Tickle (English College, Rome) to Westminster; 10 April 1948, Tickle to D. Worlock, 19 April 1948, Tickle to Worlock, 19 April 1948, Westminster to Italian Ambassador, London, 19 April 1948, Worlock to Tickle, 22 April 1948, Circular to Sword of the Spirit members.

54 See, e.g., Church Times, “Summary” (2 April 1948); The Tablet (24 April 1948); The Times (2 April 1948), (15 April 1948), (23 April 1948); “Crisis of the West,” The Times (24 April 1948.)

55 GUL, Woodruff Papers 18/12, Woodruff to Collins, 7 April 1948, Collins to Woodruff, 9 April 1948.

56 Christian Action, A Call to Action by Christians in the Present Crisis: A Report on the Meeting Held at the Albert Hall, on Sunday, April 25, at 7.30 pm (Oxford, 1948), pp. 2, 12–37Google Scholar.

57 AAW, Griffin Papers, 1/14e, Worlock to Rev. G. Winham, 20 April 1948; “Vital Needs of Europe,” Church Times (30 April 1948), p. 237; LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/54: CA, “Follow Up’ of the Albert Hall Meeting—a Second Memorandum. A Report Presented at the Second Meeting at the Caxton Hall, on July 21st, 1948.”

58 Collins, Faith under Fire, p. 141; Collins, Christian Action, pp. 115, 124.

59 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/54: CA, “Follow Up’ of the Albert Hall Meeting—a Second Memorandum. A Report Presented at the Second Meeting at the Caxton Hall, on July 21st, 1948,” MSS3290/8, Minutes of OCPFUE Committee meeting, 1 March 1948; AAW, Griffin Papers, 2/35: Collins to CA supporters, 25 October 1948; Collins, Christian Action, p. 106.

60 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/61, Chairman's Report, 29 November 1948; AAW, Griffin Papers, 1/34b; Europe Unites: The Story of the Campaign for European Unity including a Full Report of the Congress of Europe, Held at The Hague, May, 1948 (London, 1949), pp. 72–89Google Scholar.

61 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3290/54: CA, “Follow Up’ of the Albert Hall Meeting—a Second Memorandum. A Report Presented at the Second Meeting at the Caxton Hall, on July 21st, 1948.”

62 See Gehler, Michael and Kaiser, Wolfram, “Transnationalism and Early European Integration: The Nouvelles Equipes Internationales and the Geneva Circle 1947–1957,” Historical Journal 44, no. 3 (2001): 773–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 AAW, Griffin Papers, 2/35, “Christian Action in Britain 1951;” Katharine, , Duchess of Atholl, Working Partnership: Being the Lives of John George, 8th Duke of Atholl, and His Wife Katharine Marjory Ramsay (London, 1958), pp. 240–52Google Scholar; Dorril, Stephen, MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations (London, 2000), chap. 21Google Scholar; Catlin, George, For God's Sake, Go! An Autobiography (Gerrards Cross, 1972), chap. 16Google Scholar; People and Freedom (February, March, and April 1948).

64 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3291.

65 PRO, CAB 124/124, Transcript of interview of Collins by Paul Bareau, 19 January 1949.

66 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3291/95, Catlin to Collins, n.d. [ca. 1949]; Walsh, Michael, The Tablet, 1840–1990: A Commemorative History (London, 1990), chap. 4Google Scholar. I am grateful to Sue Chisholm of The Tablet for providing me with a copy of this chapter.

67 GUL, Woodruff Papers, 18/12, Woodruff to unnamed, 17 February 1949, Woodruff to Collins, 17 February 1949, Collins to Woodruff, 23 February 1949.

68 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3291/108: n.d., Unsigned NEI report, MSS3291/106, “Report on the Principal Matters That Came before the Political and Executive Committees at Their Meeting Held Just before Easter,” 6 May 1949, MSS3291/124, Collins to Atholl, 15 June 1950, MSS3301/322, Halifax to Collins, 25 June 1951

69 GUL, Woodruff Papers, 18/12, Collins to Woodruff, 5 November 1949.

70 Trinity College Library (TCL), Lord Layton Papers, box 131/3, Memorandum concerning visit of Duncan Sandys and Dr. Joseph Retinger to Rome, 29 January 1948.

71 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3299/144, “Sir Stafford's Visit to Rome, Summary of Results of L John Collins’ meeting with the Apostolic Delegate,” 13 April 1949, MSS3299/147: Burke Trend to L. J. Collins (from British Embassy to Rome), 3 May 1949; Collins, Faith under Fire, pp. 175–76.

72 British Library of Political and Economic Science (BLPES), Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Collins to Rhys-Williams, n.d. [August 1949?]; LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3291/245–47, Minutes of NEI-BS Committee meeting, 15 October 1949.

73 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, “List of Those Invited to the Caxton Hall Meeting.”

74 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Rhys-Williams to Duncan Sandys, “Interim Report,” 6 September 1949, Report of the Meeting convened by the CMEU, Caxton Hall, 17 October 1949.

75 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Minutes of the meeting of Continuation Committee of CMEU, 21 December 1949.

76 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Heriot to Rhys-Williams, 29 November 1949; TCL, Lord Layton Papers, 131/1, Layton to W. S. Churchill, 22 June 1949, 132/2: “Lord McGowan's Appeal,” 15 July 1949, 132/3, “United Europe Mission to the United States,” July 1948, “Loans from the United Europe Movement to the International Committee and Other Movements,” n.d. [ca. 1948]; UEM, Balance Sheet and Accounts, 31 January 1949; Dorrill, MI6, pp. 453–68.

77 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Report of the meeting convened by the CMEU, Caxton Hall, 17 October 1949.

78 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, “Christian Movement for European Unity” (undated leaflet, ca. 1949).

79 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Report of the meeting convened by the CMEU, Caxton Hall, 17 October 1949, and “Continuation Committee,” 25 November 1949; “Spotlight on the Chairman of the Executive,” and “The Plan for World Government by 1955,”Federal News, no. 150 (September 1947), pp. 8, 14; LPL, Fisher Papers, 362, Fisher to Amery, 3 January 1947, 365, Fisher to Amery, 17 January 1947; 375, Sandys to Fisher, 3 April 1947; TCL, Layton Papers, 131/2, Minutes of the meeting of the U.K.CEM, 17 May 1949; AAW, Griffin Papers, 1/34b, D. Worlock to F. L. Josephy, 9 April 1948.

80 Bodleian Library (Bodl.), Stokes Papers, box 18, Save Europe Now folder, Diary for 1949, entries for 19 October, 23 November, and 14 December, box 25, handwritten notes for speech.

81 For example, see Bodl., Stokes Papers, Diary for 1949, entry for 9 November, Diary for 1950, entry for 18 October, Diary for 1951, entry for 10 April, Diary for 1951 entries for 14 and 15 March and 10 April, box 2, Bernard Griffin to Stokes, 22 December 1949, box 3, Stokes to Griffin, 9 February 1950, Griffin to Stokes, 12 February 1950, Stokes to Griffin, 17 February 1950.

82 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 8/4/1, Minutes of the meeting of Continuation Committee of CMEU, 21 December 1949.

83 GUL, Woodruff Papers, 18/2, Minutes of the CMEU Continuing Committee Meeting, 2 February 1951.

84 BLPES, Josephy Papers, 5/7, Minutes of the Executive Committee of U.K.CEM, 25 May 1950, Minutes of the meeting of the Council of U.K.CEM, 25 May 1950, Minutes of the meeting of the Council of U.K.CEM, 18 October 1950.

85 AAW, Griffin Papers, 2/35, “Christian Action in Britain 1951”; Daniel Jenkins and Marjorie Reeves, “Outside Ecclesiastical Organization: The Christian Frontier Council,” in Reeves, ed., Christian Thinking and Social Order, pp. 80–100; LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3291/278–79, Minutes of NEI Committee Meeting, 19 October 1950.

86 Collins, Faith under Fire, p. 177; The Times (1 May 1951).

87 BLPES, Juliet Rhys-Williams Papers, 6/7/1, “An Address Delivered by Stephen Spender on European Unity at the Christian Action Lunch-Hour Forum at Caxton Hall on November 20, 1951”; AAW, Griffin Papers, 2/35, Collins to Griffin, 2 December 1951. Griffin was unable to attend (Worlock to Collins, 31 December 1951).

88 AAW, Griffin Papers, 2/35, Christian Action News-Letter and Review, no. 5 (January 1952), p. 20.

89 Tony Gibson, “Christian Action,” The Times (7 May 1948).

90 Collins, Christian Action, p. 93.

91 Manchester Guardian (27 April 1948).

92 Christian Action, A Call to Action, p. 8.

93 Collins, Faith under Fire, pp. 180 ff.; LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3300/97, Collins to Lord Hailsham, 18 February 1953.

94 See British Council of Churches, Christians and the Common Market (London, 1967)Google Scholar.

95 Christian Action, A Call to Action, p. 8; Collins, Faith under Fire, p. 118; see also Collins, Christian Action, p. 48

96 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3299/133, 139, Collins to C. L. Bruce, 30 March 1949. In the note (MSS3299/133) summarizing the points to be put to Cripps, Bruce also inquired whether she should mention “Dr. Retinger.” Joseph Retinger—a former Polish minister of state and a wartime SOE officer with close links to MI6—was secretary general of the European Movement and a friend of Hugh Gaitskell. Dorril, MI6, 439; Richard Fletcher, “How CIA Money Took the Teeth Out of Socialism,” Working Class Movement Library, Salford, 14 October 2002, http://www.wcml.org.uk/wattw.html.

97 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3299/134, C. L. Bruce to Collins, 25 March 1949; PRO, CAB 124/124, Cripps to Collins, 24 November 1949;· Cripps to Collins, 6 December 1949.

98 LPL Collins Papers, MSS3299/54, “Follow Up’ of the Albert Hall Meeting—a Second Memorandum. A Report Presented at the Second Meeting at the Caxton Hall, on July 21st, 1948.”

99 Bryant, Chris, Possible Dreams: A Personal History of the British Christian Socialists (London, 1996), pp. 246–48Google Scholar.

100 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3299/132, Collins to C. L. Bruce, 14 March 1949.

101 For Labour's attitudes to European integration, see Broad, Roger, Labour's European Dilemmas: From Bevin to Blair (Basingstoke, 2001), pp. 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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103 Manchester Guardian (24 April 1948); Silverman, Sydney et al. , Stop the Coming War: A Plan for European Unity and Recovery (London, [1948]), p. 5Google Scholar. The other PSCG signatories were John Haire, Leah Manning, and Ernest Millington. See also Socialist Europe Group, A Socialist Foreign Policy for the Labour Party (n.d.). On SEG, see Dejack, Stephano, “Labour and Europe during the Attlee Governments: The Image in the Mirror of R. W. G. Mackay's ‘Europe Group,’ 1945–50,” in From Reconstruction to Integration: Britain and the World since 1945, ed. Brivati, Brian and Jones, Harriet (Leicester, 1993), pp. 47–58Google Scholar.

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106 Burgess, “Political Catholicism, European Unity and the Rise of Christian Democracy,” p. 152.

107 “The Congress of Luxemburg: Christian-Democrats and European Reconciliation,” People and Freedom (February 1948), p. 1; “Christianity and Politics,” People and Freedom (April 1948), p. 1; “Christians in the Labour Party,” The Tablet (15 May 1948).

108 LPL, Collins Papers, MSS3299/132, Collins to C. L. Bruce, 14 March 1949.

109 Robbins, History, Religion and Identity, chap. 7; Hastings, Adrian, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 35–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Colley, Linda, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1996)Google Scholar.

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112 The English Churchman and St. James Chronicle (7 May 1948), (9 December 1949), (30 April 1948), (4 June 1948), (7 May 1948), (30 June 1951).

113 See, e.g., “Christian Action Campaign to Support Western Union,” British Weekly (29 April 1948); David Maxwell Fyfe, “Guest Commentary,” British Weekly (6 May 1948); “Western Christian Union,” Christian World (8 April 1948); “A European Christian Union,” Christian World (29 April 1948); “Congress of Europe” Christian World (13 May 1948); “Notes of the Week,” Methodist Recorder (29 April 1948); “Religion and the Nation” and “Notes of the Week,” Methodist Recorder (6 May 1948); “Notes of the Week,” Methodist Recorder (13 May 1948); “Notes and Comments,” The Christian (29 April 1948).

114 See, e.g., “Ilico,” “Religious Freedom Again,” British Weekly (3 June 1948); “Ilico,” and “A Meeting of Extremes,” British Weekly (10 June 1948); “A European Christian Union,” Christian World (29 April 1948); “Notes of the Week,” Methodist Recorder (29 April 1948); “Notes and Comments,” The Christian (29 April 1948).

115 Micklem, Nathaniel, “The Pope's Men,” The Congregational Quarterly, 30, no. 3 (July 1952): 218–30Google Scholar.

116 Blanshard, Paul, Freedom and Catholic Power (London, 1951; first published 1949)Google Scholar; “From the Editor's Chair,” Free Church Chronicle 6, no. 3 (March 1951): 8Google Scholar.

117 British Weekly (20 May 1948).

118 Christian Action, A Call to Action, p. 8.

119 See, e.g., “Western Union,” The Christian News-Letter, no. 311 (12 May 1948), p. 3; “Going West,” The Student Movement 51, no. 2 (November–December 1948): 1–4Google Scholar; “Meeting for Sufferings,” The Friend 106, no. 28 (9 July 1948): 567Google Scholar

120 BL, Stafford Cripps Papers 30, Michael Harris to Edgar Dunstan, 3 June 1948

121 Wiener, Martin J., English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (London, 1985), pp. 111–18Google Scholar.

122 “Monthly Letter: Tensions in Europe,” The Frontier 3, no. 7 (July 1952): 253–58Google Scholar.

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127 Butler, Harold, “Can We Be European Patriots?” The Listener 40 (5 August 1948): 200Google Scholar.

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129 “Must We be European?” The Church in the World, no. 99 (May 1964), pp. 9–10.