Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T23:27:41.015Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Religious Organizations and Political Process in Centralized Empires

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2011

S. N. Eisenstadt
Get access

Extract

The problem of the relations between religious and political organizations and systems has been of long standing in the broad field of comparative historical studies and in the sociology of religion. The work of Max Weber, although more explicitly focused on the relations between economics and religion has, of course, contained many general and concrete analyses on the interrelations between religion and politics in general and between specific types of religious and political systems in particular. Some of the recent works dealing with this area have been devoted to the more general problem of “The State and Religion.” These discussions have emphasized the problem of their interdependence and mutual influence, especially in the more “developed” forms of both religious and political institutions, but have not always specified the exact types of religious and political structures whose interaction formed the object of the analysis.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 21 , Issue 3 , May 1962 , pp. 271 - 294
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1962

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See, for instance, J. R. Strayer, “The State and Religion: Greece and Rome, the West, Islam,” and Coulborn, R., “The State and Religion: Iran, India and China,” Comparative Studies in Society and History I No. 1 (1958), 38–57Google Scholar; also the discussion of this paper by Nichols, J. H., van Buitenen, J. and Coulborn, R. in “Debate,” Comparative Studies in Society and History I No. 4 (1959), 383–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 On the political system of these empires see Eisenstadt, S. N., “Political Struggle in Bureaucratic Societies,” World Politics, IX, (Oct. 1956) 15–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eisenstadt, S. N., “Internal Contradictions in Bureaucratic Politics,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 1, No. 1, (Oct. 1958), 50–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eisenstadt, S. N., “Les Causes de la Désintégration et de la Chute des Empires—Analyses Sociologiques et Analyses Historiques,” Diogène 34 (June 1961), 87–112.Google Scholar

3 For general descriptions of the main religions to be discussed here see the following. For Ancient Iran: Christensen, A., L'Iran sous les Sassanides, (Copenhagen, 1936)Google Scholar, and “Sassanid Persia,” in the Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XII, (1939), 109–137Google Scholar; Ghirshman, R., Iran, London, (1954)Google Scholar. For the Chinese religions: Rotours, R. Des, “La religion dans la Chine antique,” in Brilliant, M. & Angrain, R. (eds.), Histoire des religions, Vol. II, (Paris, 1955) 1–83Google Scholar; Maspero, H., Les religions chinoises, (Paris, 1950)Google Scholar; Balazs, E., “Le droit chinois (I en II),” in Aspects de la Chine, (Paris, 1959) 195–203Google Scholar; Kaltenmark, M., “Le Confucianismc” and “Le Taoisme,” in Aspects de la Chine, pp. 146–51 and 151–60Google Scholar; Nivison, D. S. & Wright, A. F., eds., Confucianism in Action, (Stanford, 1959)Google Scholar; Wright, A. F., Buddhism in Chinese History, (Stanford, 1959)Google Scholar, and The Confucian Persuasion, (Stanford, 1960)Google Scholar; Pulleyblank, E. G., The Background of the Rebellion of An-Lu-shan, (London, 1955)Google Scholar. For Eastern (Byzantine) Christianity: Barker, E., ed., Social and Political Thought in Byzantium from Justinian I to the last Palaeologus, (Oxford, 1957)Google Scholar; L. Bréhier, Vie et mort de Byzance, (Paris, 1947)Google Scholar, Les institutions de l'Empire byzantin, (Paris, 1949)Google Scholar, and La civilization byzantine, (Paris, 1950)Google Scholar; Grégoire, H., “The Byzantine Church,” in Baynes, N. H. & Moss, H. St. L. B., eds., Byzantium, (Oxford, 1948), pp. 86–136Google Scholar; Hussey, J. M., Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire (867–1185) (London, 1937)Google Scholar, and The Byzantine World, (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Gelzer, H., “Das Verhältnis von Staat und Kirche in Byzanz,” in Ausgewählte kleine Schriften, (Leipzig, 1907, pp. 57–141Google Scholar; Ostrogorsky, G., History of the Byzantine State, (Oxford, 1956)Google Scholar, passim. For Islam: Cahen, C., “The Body Politic,” in von Grunebaum, E. ed., Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, (Chicago, 1955), pp. 132–66Google Scholar; Lewis, B., The Arabs in History, (London, 1950)Google Scholar, “Some Observations on the Significance of Heresy in the History of Islam,” Studia lslamica I, (1953), 43–64Google Scholar, and “Islam” in Sirror, D., ed., Orientalism and History, (Cambridge, 1954), pp. 16–33Google Scholar; Hodgson, M. G. S., “The Unity of Later Islamic History,” Journal of World History V, (1960), 879–914Google Scholar; von Grunebaum, G. E., Medieval Islam, a Study in Cultural Orientation, (Chicago, 1946)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Dennett, D. C., “Marwan ibu Muhammad, the Passing of the Umayyad Caliphate,” in the Summary of Theses of the Harvard Graduate School, 1939, pp. 103–5Google Scholar, and Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam, (Cambridge, Mass., 1950)Google Scholar. For some general characteristics of organization and development of religion in Absolutist Europe: Cobban, A., “The Enlightenment,” in the New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VII, (1957), 85–112CrossRefGoogle Scholar; R. W. Greaves, “Religion,” ibid., 113–40; Sykes, N., Church and State in the 18th Century, (Cambridge, 1934)Google Scholar; Jedin, H., “Zur Entwicklung des Kirchenbegriffes im 16ten Jahrhundret,” in Relazioni del congresso internazionale di scienzestoriche, Vol. IV, (Rome, 1955), 59–74Google Scholar; E. J. Léonard, “La notion et le fait de l'église dans la réforme prostestante,” ibid., 75–110; J. Orcibal, “L'idée d'église chez les catholiques du XVIIIe siècle,” ibid., 111–135. For surveys of religious situation and development in the Spanish American Empire see; Hanke, L., “Pope Paul III and the American Indians,” Harvard Theological Review XXX (1937), 65–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mörner, M., The Political and Economic Activities of the Jesuits in La Plata region—the Hapsburg Era, (Stockholm, 1953)Google Scholar; du Dezert, G. Desdevides, “L'inquisition aux Indes espangnoles à la fin du XVIIIe siècle,” Revue hispanique XXX (1914), 1–119Google Scholar; and du Dezert, G. Desdevides, L'église espagnole des Indes à la fin du XIIIe siècle, (Paris, 1917).Google Scholar

4 On Iran see Christensen, L'lran sous les Sassanides and “Sassanid Persia”; Mazdak, O. Klima, Geschichte einer sozialen Bewegung im sassanidischen Persien, (Prague, 1957)Google Scholar; on China, see Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action, and Wright, The Confucian Persuasion; E. Balazs, “Le droit chinois.”

5 For some general aspects of the analysis of these types of political systems see: S. N. Eisenstadt, “Political Struggles,” “International Contradictions,” “Les Causes de la Désintegration et la Chute des Empires,” and the forthcoming book of the author on the social and political systems of these empires. For descriptions on specific empires, see in addition, on Iran: Christensen, A., “Die Iranier,” in A. Alt et al., Kulturgeschichte des alten Orients, III, (Munchen, 1933)Google Scholar; Delaporte, L. and Huart, C., L'Iran antique, (Paris, 1943)Google Scholar; H. Massé Review of Christensen, 1936, Journal des savants, (1939), pp. 165–8, and, (ed.), La civilisation iranienne, (Paris, 1952)Google Scholar; Altheim, F., Reich gegen Mitternacht, (Hamburg, 1955)Google Scholar, and Gesicht von Abend und Morgen, (Frankfurt, 1955)Google Scholar; Altheim, F. and Stiehl, R., Finanzgeschichte der Spätantike, (Frankfurt, 1957)Google Scholar, and Ein asiatischer Staat, (Wiesbaden, 1954)Google Scholar (reviewed by Fry, R. N. in Central Asiatic Journal II, 1956, 298–302)Google Scholar; Windegren, G., “Recherches sur le féodalisme iranien,” Orientalia Suecana V, 1956, 79–182Google Scholar. On China: Franke, O., Geschichte des chinesischen Reiches, (Berlin, 1930/1952)Google Scholar; van der Sprenkel, B. O., “Review of Franke, 1930/1952,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. XVIII, (1956), 312–22Google Scholar; Balazs, E., “The Birth of Capitalism in China,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient III, 196–217Google Scholar, “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” Etudes asiatiques VI (1952), 77–87Google Scholar, Aspects de la Chine, (Paris, 1959)Google Scholar; Bodde, D., “Feudalism in China,” in Coulborn, R., ed., Feudalism in History, (Princeton, 1956) pp. 49–92Google Scholar; Des Rotours, R., Le traité des examens, (Paris, 1932)Google Scholar; also Traité des fonctionnaires et traité de l'armée, (Leyden, 1947/8)Google Scholar; Eberhard, W., A History of China, (London, 1948)Google Scholar, and Conquerors and Rulers, (Leyden, 1952)Google Scholar; Fairbank, J. K., ed., Chinese Thought and Institutions (Chicago, 1958)Google Scholar, and The U. S. and China, (Cambridge, Mass., 1958)Google Scholar; Lattimore, O., Inner Asian Frontiers of China, (New York, 1951)Google Scholar; Stange, H. O. H., “Geschichte Chinas,” in E. Waldschmidt et al., Geschichte Asiens, (München, 1950) pp. 363–542Google Scholar. On the Byzantine Empire, see: Diehl, C. and Marcais, G., Le monde oriental de 395 à 1081, (Paris, 1936)Google Scholar; Diehl, C. et al. , L'Europe orientate de 1081 à 1453, (Paris, 1945)Google Scholar; Diehl, C., Les grands problèmes de l'histoire byzantine, (Paris, 1943)Google Scholar; Ostrogorsky, G., History of the Byzantine State, (Oxford, 1956)Google Scholar, “Die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Entwicklungsgrundlagen des byzantinischen Reiches,” Vierteljahrschrijt für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Vol. XXII (1929), 129–43Google Scholar, “Die Perioden der byzantinischen Geschichte,” Historische Zeitschrift CLXIII, (1941), 229–54Google Scholar; Baynes, N. H., The Byzantine Empire, (New York, 1926)Google Scholar, and Byzantine Studies and Other Essays (London, 1955)Google Scholar; Runciman, S., Byzantine Civilization, (London, 1933)Google Scholar; Stein, E., Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Reiches, (Stuttgart, 1919)Google Scholar, Geschichte des spätrömischen Reiches, (Vienna, 1928)Google Scholar, Histoire de Bas-Empire, (Paris, 1949)Google Scholar Vol. II, and “Introduction a l'histoire et aux institutions byzantines,” Traditio, Vol. LXXIV, (1954), 95–168Google Scholar; Hussey, J. M., “The Byzantine Empire in the 11th Century,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society XXXII (1950), 71–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the Spanish American Empire: Haring, C. H., The Spanish Empire in America, (New York, 1947)Google Scholar; Gongora, M., El estado en el derecho indiano, (Santiago de Chile, 1951)Google Scholar; Konetzke, R., “Estado y sociedad en India,” Estudios Americanos X (1951)Google Scholar, and Formacion social de Hispano América, (Madrid, 1953)Google Scholar; Capdequi, J. M. Ots, El estado espanol en las Indias, (Mexico City, 1941)Google Scholar; Parry, J. H., “The Development of the American Communities—Latin America,” in the New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VII (1957), 487–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Veceus, J. Vida, Historià social y economic de Espana y América, (Barcelona, 1957)Google Scholar; Zavala, S., New Viewpoints on the Spanish Colonization of America, (Philadelphia, 1943)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the age of Absolutism in Europe see the general survey by Beloff, M., The Age of Absolutism, (London, 1954)Google Scholar and the bibliographies there and especially, on England: Davies, G., The Early Stuarts, (Oxford, 1937)Google Scholar, and The Restoration of Charles II, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Namier, L. B., Monarchy and the Party System, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Pares, R., Limited Monarchy in Great Britain in the 18th Century, (London, 1957)Google Scholar; on France: Sagnac, P., La formation de la société francaise moderne, (Paris, 1945/6)Google Scholar; Cabban, A., “The Decline of Divine Right Monarchy in France,” in the New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VII (1957), Ch. XCrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zeller, G., Les institutions de la France au XVIe siécle, (Paris, 1948)Google Scholar; Pages, G., La monarchic de l'ancien régime, (Paris, 1928)Google Scholar. On Prussia: Carsten, F. L., The Origins of Prussia, (Oxford, 1954)Google Scholar, and “Prussian Despotism at its Height,” History XL (1955) 42–67Google Scholar; M. Beloff, The Age of Absolutism; Hintze, O., Die Hohenzollern und ihr Werk, (Berlin, 1915)Google Scholar, and Gesammelte Abhandlungen, (Leipzig, 1943)Google Scholar; Rosenberg, H., “The Rise of the Junkers in Brandenburg Prussia,” American Historical Review XLIX, (1943/4, 221–43)Google Scholar, and Bureaucracy, Aristocracy and Autocracy, (Cambridge, Mass., 1958)Google Scholar; von Schmoller, G., Umrisse und Untersuchungen zur Verfassungs- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, (Leipzig, 1898)Google Scholar, and Presussische Verfassungsund Verwaltungs- und Finanzgeschichte, (Berlin, 1921)Google Scholar. On Russia, B. Pares, A History of Russia, (London, 1958)Google Scholar; Nolde, B., La formation de l'Empire russe, (Paris, 1952/3)Google Scholar; Summer, B. H., “Peter the Great,” History XXXII (1947) 39–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and A Short History of Russia, (New York, 1949)Google Scholar; Nolde, B., L'ancien régime et la révolution russe, (Paris, 1948)Google Scholar. On the Islamic Empires: von Grunebaum, G. E., ed., Studies in Islamic Cultural History, American Anthropologist, Memoir 76, (1954)Google Scholar, Islam, (London, 1955)Google Scholar, and Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, (Chicago, 1955)Google Scholar; Cahen, C., “The Body Politic,” in Grunebaum, Unity and Variety 132–66Google Scholar, “L'histoire économique et sociale de l'orient musulman médiéval,” Studia Islamica III (1955), 93–116, “Lecons d'histoire musulmane,” (mimeo) Les cours de Sorbonne, (Paris, 1957), and “Les facteurs économiques et sociaux dans l'ankyklose culturelle de l'lslam,” in Brunschvig, R. and von Grunebaum, G. E., eds., Classisisme et déclin cultural dans l'histoire de l'lslam, Actes du Symposium international d'historie de la civilisation musulmane, Paris, 1957, pp. 195–217.Google Scholar

6 A general survey of some aspects of this problem is given in Schilling, W., Religion und Recht, (Zürich, 1959), esp. Ch. 2.Google Scholar

7 On Iran see: de Menasce, R. P., “L'église mazdéenne dans l'Empire sassanide,” Journal of World History II (1955), 554–65Google Scholar; Mole, M., “L'orthodoxie zorastienne,” Annuaire de l'institut de philologie et d'histoire orientale et slave XII, 1953Google Scholar. On Byzance see: E. Barker, Social and Political Thought in Byzantium from Justinian 1 to the last Palaeologus; L. Bréhier, Vie et mort de Byzance, Les institutions de l'Empire byzantin, and La civilisation byzantine; G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State, passim. On China: D. S. Nivison and A. F. Wright, Confucianism in Action; R. Des Rotours, Le traité des examens, and Traité des fonctionnaires et traité de l'armée; Kaltenmark in Aspects de la Chine; Balazs, “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” op. cit.; Galt, H. S., A History of Chinese Educational Institutions (London, 1951).Google Scholar

8 See for instance: Reischauer, E. O., Ennin's Travels in T'ang China, (New York, 1955)Google Scholar; Redfield, R. and Singer, M., “The Cultural Role of Cities,” Economic Development and Cultural Change III, (1954) 53–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 For descriptions of the major policies of the rulers in the religious and cultural field see: In Iran: A. Christensen, L'lran sous les Sassanides; F. Altheim, Reich gegen Mitternacht and Gesicht von Abend und Morgen. In the Byzantine Empire: M. Mitard, “Le pouvoir impérial du temps de Léon VI,” in Mélanges; C. Diehl, 1930, Vol. I; Bratianu, G. I., Etudes byzantines d'histoire économique et sociale, (Paris, 1938)Google Scholar; Sinogowitz, B., “Die byzantinische Rechtsgeschichte im Spiegel der Neuerscheinungen,” Saeculum IV, (1953) 313–33Google Scholar, and “Die Begriffe Reich, Macht, und Herrschaft im byzantinischen Kulturberich,” Saeculum IV (1953) 450–5Google Scholar; Baynes, N. H., Byzantine Studies and Other Essays, pp. 47–67Google Scholar; Bréhier, L., Les institutions de l'Empire byzantin, pp. 1–52Google Scholar.; Ensslin, W., “Das Gottesgnadentum des autokratischen Kaisertums der frühbyzantinischen Zeit,” Studi bizantini e noellenici V (1939)Google Scholar; Charanis, P., “Coronation and its Significance in the Later Roman Empire,” Byzantion XV (1940–41) 49–66Google Scholar; Hussey, J. M., Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire, (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Diehl, C., Les grands problèmes de l'histoire byzantine, (Paris, 1943), Ch. IVGoogle Scholar; Grabar, A., L'empereur dans l'art byzantin, (Paris, 1936)Google Scholar (Review by L. Bréhier in Journal des savants 1937, pp. 62–74). In the Muslim States: B. Lewis, The Arabs in History; Hodgson, M. G. S. in Journal of World History V (1960)Google Scholar; J. Schacht, “The Law” in Grunebaum (ed.) (1955), pp. 65–86. In Europe: Göhring, M., Weg und Sieg der modernen Staatsidee in Frankreich, (Tübingen, 1947)Google Scholar; M. Beloff, The Age of Absolutism. In the Spanish American Empire: L. Hanke, “Theoretical Aspects of the Spanish Discovery,” in the Summary of Theses of Harvard Graduate School, (1936) pp. 195–6; idem. 1937, op. cit.; Parry, J. H.The Spanish Theory of Empire in the 16th Century, (Cambridge, 1940)Google Scholar. In China: H. S. Galt, A History of Chinese Educational Institutions; Goodrich, L. C., The Litreary Inquisition of Ch'ien-Lung, (Baltimore, 1953)Google Scholar. See also on the political role of history writing in China: Balazs, E., “Chinesische Geschichtswerke als Wegweiser zur Praxis der Burokratie,” Saeculum VIII (1957) pp. 210–23Google Scholar; Yang, L. S., “Die Organisation der chinesischen offiziellen Geschichtsschreibung,” Saeculum VIII (1957) 196–209.Google Scholar

10 The full exposition of this hypothesis will be given in a forthcoming book on the social and political systems of the centralized empires.

11 For the description of the participation of the religious groups in the political struggles in these empires sec: A. Christensen, L'Iran sous les Sassanides, Chs. III, VI, VIII, also “Sassanid Persia,” op. cit.; Mole, “L'orthodoxie zoroastienne,” Massé, La civilisation iranienne; Klima, Geschichte einer sozialen Bewegung im sassanidischen Persien; Bréhier, L., Le schisme oriental du XIe siècle (Paris, 1899)Google Scholar, and La Querelle des images (Paris, 1904)Google Scholar; Ostrogorsky, G., Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Bilderstreits, (Breslau, 1929)Google Scholar, and “Les débuts de la querelle des images,” in Mélanges, C. Diehl, (Paris, 1930) Vol. 1, 235–55; Dwornik, F., The Photian Schism, (Cambridge, 1948)Google Scholar; Runciman, S., The Eastern Schism, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Jugie, M., Le schisme byzantin, (Paris, 1941)Google Scholar; Gernet, J., Les aspects économiques du Bouddhisme, (Saigon, 1956)Google Scholar; Wright, A. F., Buddhism in Chinese History, (Stanford, 1959)Google Scholar; E. Pulleyblank, The Rebellion of An Lu-shan; H. S. Galt, History of Chinese Educational Institutions; Wilhelm, H., “The Po-Hsueh Hung-ju Examination of 1679,” JAOS LXXI (1951) 60–66Google Scholar; Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in Tang China; Kracke, E. A. Jr., Civil Service in Early Sung China, (Cambridge, Mass., 1953)Google Scholar; Franke, H., “Das begriffsfeld des Staatlichen im chinesischen Kulturbereich,” Saeculum IV (1953) 231–9Google Scholar; DeBarry, W., “Chinese Despotism and the Confucian Ideal,” in Fairbank, , ed., Chinese Thought and Institutions, pp. 163–204Google Scholar; Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action; Hanke, L., The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia, 1949)Google Scholar, and Bartolomé de Las Casas—Scholar and Propagandist, (Philadelphia, 1952)Google Scholar; S. Zavala, New Viewpoints on Spanish Colonizations; Clark, G., The Seventeenth Century, (Oxford, 1929)Google Scholar, Early Modern Europe, (London, 1957)Google Scholar, and The Later Stuarts, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Königsberger, H. G., “The Organization of Revolutionary Parties in France and the Netherlands during the 16th Century,” Journal of Modern History XXVII (1955) 335–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leonard, H. Jedin, and Orccibal, in Relazioni del congresso internazionale di scienze storiche (1955)Google Scholar; J. M. Hussey, Church and Learning; Fuchs, op. cit.

12 See the bibliography quoted earlier and especially A. Christensen, Klima, R. P. de Manasce, and Mole.

13 See previous references on Iran and also Nyberg, H. S., Die Religionen des Alten Iran, (Leipzig, 1938)Google Scholar, and Zachner, K. C., The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroaslrianism (London, 1961)Google Scholar.

14 See Balzas, E., “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” and “La pérenneté de la société bureaucratique en Chine,” in the International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts (mimeo.) (Tokyo, 1959) pp. 31–9Google Scholar; Nivison, and Wright, , Confucianism in Action, Wright, A. F. ed. The Confusion Persuasion, (Stanford, 1960)Google Scholar, passim, and especially R. Des Rotours, La religion dans la Chine antique.

15 The different aspects of these political activities are discussed in detail in the literature quoted above, and also especially in C. O. Hucker, Confucianism and the Chinese Censorial System, in Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action, pp. 182–208; W. DeBarry, “Chinese Despotism and the Confucian Ideal,” in Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, pp. 163–204; E. Balazs, “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” and “Le droit chinois (I et II)”; Nicolas-Vandier, N., “Less échanges entre le Bouddhisme et le Taoisme des Han aux T'ang,” in Aspects de la Chine (1959), pp. 166–71Google Scholar; also “Le Neo-Confucianisme,” Aspects (1959) pp. 175–80; E. Pulleyblank, Rebellion of An Lu-shan; Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History (1959; Maspero; Gernet; Kaltermark; P. Demiéville, “Le Bouddhisme chinois,” Aspects de la Chine, pp. 62–166, and “Le Bouddhisme sous les T'ang,” Aspects 171–5.

16 See literature on China quoted above.

17 See Shih, V. Y. C., “Some Chinese Rebel Ideologies,” Toung Pao, (1956) XLIV, 150–227CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eichhorn, W., “Description of the Rebellion of Sun En and earlier Taoist Rebellions,” Mitteilungen des Institutes für Orientforschungen, (Wien, 1954) IIGoogle Scholar; Eberhard, W., “Wie wurden Dynastien gegründet Ein Problem der chinesischen Geschichte,” Dil ve Tarih-Cograyya Fakultesi Derigesi (Ankara) III, 361–76Google Scholar; Chiang, S. T., The Nien Rebellion (Seattle, 1954)Google Scholar; Muramatsu, Y., “Some Themes in Chinese Rebel Ideologies,” in Wright, The Confucian Persuasion, pp. 241–68Google Scholar; Levy, H. S., “Yellow Turban Religion a Rebellion at the End of Han,” Journal of American Oriental Society LXXVI (1956) 214–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; E. G. Pulleyblank, Rebellion of An Lu-shan; Des Rotour, R., “Les grands fonctionnaires des provinces en Chine sous la dynastie des T'ang,” Toung Pao, Vol. XXIV (1926) 219–315.Google Scholar

18 See the literature quoted above, especially J. M. Hussey, Church and Learning and The Byzantine World (1957); E. Barker, Social and Political Thought; Bréhier, L., “Priest and King,” in Mémorial L. Petit, (Bucarest, 1948) pp. 41–5Google Scholar, and “Le recrutement des patriarches de Constantinople pendant la période byzantine,” in Actes du 6e congrès international d'études byzantines, (Paris, 1948) Vol. 1, 221–7 idem, 1950, op. cit.Google Scholar

19 See especially Ostrogorsky, G., History of the Byzantine State, (Oxford, 1956)Google Scholar passim; H. Gregoire, “The Byzantine Church.”

20 See Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, Ch. X.

21 Konigsberger, “The organization of Revolutionary Parties,” M. Beloff, Age of Absolutism; Clark, G., The Later Stuarts (London, 1955)Google Scholar; Davies, G., The Early Stuarts (Oxford, 1937)Google Scholar, Ogg, D., England in the Reign of Charles II, (Oxford, 1934)Google Scholar, and England in the Reign of James 11 and William III, (London, 1955)Google Scholar; Haller, W., Liberty and Reformation in the Puritan Revolution, (New York, 1955)Google Scholar; Jordan, W. K., The Development of Religious Tolerance in England to the Death of Queen Elizabeth, (London, 1932).Google Scholar

22 See the literature on Islam cited in notes 3, and 5, and also Levy, R., The Social Structure of Islam, (Cambridge, 1957)Google Scholar; Arnold, T. W., The Caliphate, (Oxford, 1924)Google Scholar; Gabrieli, F., “Studi di storia musulmana,” Rivista storica italiana LXII (1950) 99–110Google Scholar; Rosenthal, E. I. J., Political Thought in Medieval Islam, (Cambridge, 1958)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Samadi, S. B., “Social and Economic Aspects of Life under the Abbasid Hegemony at Baghdad,” Islamic Culture XXIX (1955) 237–45.Google Scholar

23 See especially Hodgson, M. G. S., “The Order of Assassins,” and “The Unity of Later Islamic History”; Lewis, The Arabs in History, passim.Google Scholar