No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
“¿Quién es? ¿Quién es?”: Revisiting the Racial Context of the Billy the Kid Legend
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 November 2016
Abstract
Billy the Kid spoke his last words in Spanish. Calling out “¿Quién es? ¿Quién es?” before he was killed by Sheriff Pat Garrett, the young outlaw's final moments signal his diverse ethnic context. This article examines the Kid's close contact with the Southwest's communities of color – New Mexico's Mescalero Apache Indians, African American soldiers, and Hispano farmers – and why these communities have been removed from countless popular representations of the Kid's story. Their omission has helped to perpetuate a uniquely Western and white American ideal of individualism and served to legitimize a libertarian and ahistorical ideal of violence: the rebellion of an outlaw who defies the rest of his society and his times.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Cambridge University Press and British Association for American Studies 2016
References
1 Kostelanetz, Richard, ed., Aaron Copland: A Reader, Selected Writings, 1923–1972 (New York: Routledge, 2004), 239–41Google Scholar. See also Burr, Jessica, “Copland, the West and American Identity,” in Dickinson, Peter, ed., Copland Connotations: Studies and Interviews (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2002), 22–26 Google Scholar; and Pollack, Howard, Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1999), 314–25Google Scholar.
2 Quoted in Ramey, Philip, “Copland and the Dance,” Ballet News, 2, 5 (1980), 8–12, 11Google Scholar.
3 For the best single volume on the many forms and portrayals of the Kid legend see Tatum, Stephen, Inventing Billy the Kid: Visions of the Outlaw in America, 1881–1981 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997)Google Scholar.
4 The historiography on Billy the Kid and the Lincoln County War is vast. See especially Nolan, Frederick, The Lincoln County War: A Documentary History (Santa Fe: Sunstone Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Wallis, Michael, Billy the Kid: The Endless Ride (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007)Google Scholar; Jacobsen, Joel, Such Men as Billy the Kid: The Lincoln County War Reconsidered (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Chamberlain, Kathleen, Billy the Kid and the Lincoln County War: A Bibliography (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Utley, Robert, Billy the Kid: A Short and Violent Life (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989)Google Scholar.
5 For critical discussions of violence in the West and its influence on popular culture and politics in the United States see del Mar, David Peterson, Beaten Down: A History of Interpersonal Violence in the West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Slotkin, Richard, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998)Google Scholar; McKanna, Clare Jr., Homicide, Race, and Justice in the American West, 1880–1920 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997)Google Scholar.
6 The Mescaleros themselves had been fighting for centuries – almost continuously after their first contact with the Spanish explorer Coronado in 1540. Numbering just a few thousand by the late 1870s, their survival as a people was very much in doubt at the time of the Lincoln County War. For surveys of Mescalero history, in addition to the more specific studies cited later in this article, see Opler, Morris, “Mescalero Apache,” in Ortiz, Alfonso, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Southwest, Volume X (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1983), 419–39Google Scholar; Sonnichsen, C. L., The Mescalero Apaches (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973)Google Scholar; Palmer, Jessica Dawn, Apache Peoples: A History of All Bands and Tribes through the 1880s (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013)Google Scholar; Lawrence Mehren, “A History of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, 1869–1881,” MA thesis, University of Arizona, 1968; Opler, Morris and Opler, Catherine, “Mescalero Apache History in the Southwest,” New Mexico Historical Review, 25, 1 (Jan. 1950), 1–36 Google Scholar.
7 Since the 1960s, a considerable academic and popular literature on the Buffalo Soldiers and black infantrymen in the West has emerged. See especially Billington, Monroe Lee, New Mexico's Buffalo Soldiers: 1866–1900 (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1991)Google Scholar; Glasrud, Bruce, ed., Buffalo Soldiers in the West: A Black Soldiers Anthology (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Dobak, William and Phillips, Thomas, The Black Regulars, 1866–1898 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Leckie, William, The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Black Cavalry in the West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Schubert, Frank, ed., On the Trail of the Buffalo Soldier II (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Kenner, Charles, Buffalo Soldiers and Officers of the Ninth Cavalry, 1867–1898: Black and White Together (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999)Google Scholar; and Lukas, J. Anthony, Big Trouble: A Murder in a Small Western Town Sets Off a Struggle for the Soul of America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 127–42Google Scholar.
8 This article uses the term “Hispano” to identify the Spanish-descended population of New Mexico Territory. For scholarly work on this specific, regional nomenclature see Nostrand, Richard, “Hispano Homeland,” in Wishart, David, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 359–60Google Scholar; Montgomery, Charles, “Becoming ‘Spanish-American’: Race and Rhetoric in New Mexico Politics, 1880–1928,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20, 4 (Summer 2001), 59–84 Google Scholar; Gonzales, Phillip B., “The Political Construction of Latino Nomenclatures in Twentieth-Century New Mexico,” Journal of the Southwest, 35, 2 (Summer 1993), 158–85Google Scholar.
9 Key works on the Hispano experience in New Mexico include Nieto-Phillips, John, The Language of Blood: The Making of Spanish-American Identity in New Mexico, 1880s–1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Montgomery, Charles, The Spanish Redemption: Heritage, Power, and Loss on New Mexico's Upper Rio Grande (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Maciel, David, ed., The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Rosenbaum, Robert, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Nostrand, Richard, The Hispano Homeland (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992)Google Scholar.
10 Garrett, Pat, The Authentic Life of Billy, the Kid (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), 147Google Scholar.
11 Pollack, Aaron Copland, 317–18.
12 Robinson, Sherry, ed., Apache Voices: Their Stories of Survival as Told to Eve Ball (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000), 128–29Google Scholar; Crothers, W. D., “Report,” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1875 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875), 329–30Google Scholar.
13 Nolan, 47.
14 Jessica Dawn Palmer, 50–51, explains how different bands of the Mescalero were known by their specific climate and geography, such as the Tahuundé (“Mountains-Extending-into-the-River People”) and the Tuetinini (“No-Water People”).
15 Barr, Juliana, “Geographies of Power: Mapping Indian Borders in the ‘Borderlands’ of the Early Southwest,” William and Mary Quarterly, 68, 1 (Jan. 2011), 29–43 Google Scholar; Hall, Thomas, Social Change in the Southwest, 1350–1880 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 50–109 Google Scholar; Opler, 437–38; Sonnichsen, 13–34.
16 Although the following three works do not discuss the Apaches of the Southwest, the evolving relationships they describe between Native Americans and their ecosystems before and after contact with Euro-Americans inform my own understanding and discussion here. See West, Elliott, Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998)Google Scholar; White, Richard, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983)Google Scholar; and Cronon, William, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983)Google Scholar.
17 Sonnichsen, 35–64; Simmons, Marc, The Last Conquistador: Juan de Oñate and the Settling of the Far Southwest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 48–69 Google Scholar; Meinig, D. W., Southwest: Three Peoples in Geographical Change, 1600–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971) 9–16 Google Scholar.
18 Bernard Second quoted in Robinson, 131. See also Barr, 29–43; Sonnichsen, 35–64.
19 In Robinson, 131.
20 Moorhead, Max, The Apache Frontier: Jacobo Ugarte and Spanish–Indian Relations in New Spain, 1769–1791 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 200–69Google Scholar; Hall, 110–33; Opler, 420–21.
21 Delay, Brian, “Independent Indians and the U.S.–Mexican War,” American Historical Review, 112, 1 (Feb. 2007), 35–68 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rippy, Fred, “The Indians of the Southwest in the Diplomacy of the United States and Mexico, 1848–1853,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 2, 3 (Aug. 1919), 363–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dobyns, Henry, “The Decline of Mescalero Apache Indian Population from 1873 to 1913,” Papers in Anthropology, 18, 2 (Fall 1977), 61–69 Google Scholar; Mehren, “A History of the Mescalero Apache Reservation,” 1–80; Lamar, Howard, The Far Southwest, 1846–1912 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966) 136–70Google Scholar.
22 Godfroy, F. C., “Report,” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1877 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1877), 155Google Scholar.
23 Godfroy, , “Report,” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1876 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876), 106; Mehren, 81–122 Google Scholar.
24 Godfroy, Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1877, 156.
25 Godfroy, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1876, 105.
26 Nolan, The Lincoln County War, 32–55; Caffey, David L., Chasing the Santa Fe Ring: Power and Privilege in Territorial New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014), 61–84 Google Scholar; Wilson, John, Merchants, Guns & Money: The Story of the Lincoln County Wars (Santa Fe: Sunstone Press, 1987), 27–41 Google Scholar; Dudley, L. Edwin, “Report,” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1873 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1873), 263–64Google Scholar; Mehren, 123–84.
27 Mehren, 123–84.
28 In August 1878, a federal investigator reported to the commissioner of Indian affairs that bands of Apaches refused to move to the Mescalero Reservation because of the lawlessness in Lincoln County. “If the reign of anarchy – now governing the country, continues much longer, the Indians will, of necessity, be embroiled in it. They will be compelled to fight in their own defense.” E. L. Watkins to Commissioner E. A. Hoyt, 19 Aug. 1878, Correspondence Regarding Indian Affairs in New Mexico, MSS 95/126p, Box 1, Folder 14, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, CA. Mehren, 150–202.
29 Robinson, Apache Voices, 160–61.
30 Ibid., 159, 161.
31 Godfroy, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1878, 107.
32 Siringo, Charles, History of “Billy the Kid” (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967), 8Google Scholar.
33 Post Returns, Fort Stanton, Dec. 1875 – Returns from US Military Posts, 1800–1916, Microcopy No. 617, Records of the Adjutant General's Office, Record Group 94, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA); Billington, New Mexico's Buffalo Soldiers, 71.
34 Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers, 26–27, 292; Schubert, Frank, ed., Voices of the Buffalo Soldier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), 47–49 Google Scholar; Dobak and Phillips, The Black Regulars, xvii.
35 Schubert, Voices of the Buffalo Soldier, 5–7; Leckie, 3–18; Dobak and Phillips, xi–xviii.
36 Dobak and Phillips, 2–24.
37 Kenner, Buffalo Soldiers and Officers, 11, 316 n.
38 Schubert, On the Trail of the Buffalo Soldier II, 262.
39 Review of 1866 and 1867 enlistment rosters for the Ninth US Cavalry Regiment. The Buffalo Soldiers National Museum in Houston has made the rosters for both the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry regiments available online, at http://buffalosoldiermuseum.com/soldiers.php?page=0&filter=all, accessed 9 Sept. 2015.
40 Army and Navy Journal, 27 Jan. 1877, 395.
41 Leckie, 83–112; Kenner, 53–71; Schubert, Voices of the Buffalo Soldier, 31–32, 40–46, 77–78.
42 Illiteracy was also much less prevalent. According to the 1880 US census, more than two-thirds of the black men at Fort Stanton could read and write. US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Population Schedules of the Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Microform Reel T-802 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1996).
43 For the most extensive description of the Ninth Cavalry's experiences in the territory see Billington, New Mexico's Buffalo Soldiers, 61–123. Leckie, 211–33; Schubert, Voices of the Buffalo Soldier, 93–106; Agnew, S. C., Garrisons of the Regular U. S. Army: New Mexico, 1846–1899 (Santa Fe: Press of the Territorian, 1971)Google Scholar.
44 Billington, 184–85.
45 Nolan, The Lincoln County War, 60.
46 The wounded sergeant was never named in either newspaper accounts or army documents about the incident. Wallace's Monthly, 3, 2 (March 1877), 152Google Scholar; Fulton, Maurice G., History of the Lincoln County War (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1968) 75–76 Google Scholar; Mesilla Independent, 8 Sept. 1877; Nolan, 103, 153–54; J. Sherman Jr. to E. Hatch, 3 Dec. 1877; J. S. Loud to commanding officer, Fort Stanton, 10 Dec. 1877, Letters Received by District of New Mexico, 1865–1890, M1088, Records of US Army Continental Commands, 1821–1920, Record Group 393, NARA.
47 Post Returns, Fort Stanton, Feb. 1878 – Returns from US Military Posts, 1800–1916, Microcopy No. 617, Records of the Adjutant General's Office, Record Group 94, NARA.
48 Robinson's encounters are detailed in “Proceedings of a Board of Officers Convened at Fort Stanton,” New Mexico, 17 July 1878, Letters Received by District of New Mexico, 1865–1890.
49 The commander at Fort Stanton, Lt. Colonel Nathan Dudley, reported, “the state of lawlessness and reign of terror … has remained unimproved, the civil authorities apparently powerless to cope with the difficulties and prevent the frequent acts of murder and violence which are of frequent occurrence.” Col. Dudley, in Post Returns, Fort Stanton, April 1878; Billington, 68–86; Leckie, 195–210.
50 In fact, a black cavalryman provided one of the first accounts of Billy's death, which appeared in a Las Vegas, New Mexico newspaper. Unfortunately, the soldier was not directly quoted by the reporter. Sergeant George Miller of the Ninth Cavalry was staying at a hotel just yards away from where Sheriff Pat Garrett shot Billy on 14 July 1881. “About 12:30 o'clock that night, [Miller's] peaceful slumber was disturbed by two pistol shots fired in rapid succession.” Rushing to the scene, the “colored sergeant” then witnessed the first expressions of the fascination the world would have for the Kid's story: “The startling information, ‘Billy the kid [sic] is killed,’ was the theme of every tongue. The wild inquiry, ‘who killed him?’ was soon answered by the facts which soon became known to all.” Las Vegas Daily Optic, 18 July 1881, 1.
51 It is important to note that two former black cavalrymen sided with the McSween–Tunstall faction. See Thiesen, Scott, ed., “The Fight in Lincoln, N. M., 1878: The Testimony of Two Negro Participants,” Arizona and the West, 12, 2 (Summer 1970), 173–98Google Scholar.
52 Colonel Edwin Hatch to the Assistant Adjutant General, Department of the Missouri, 17 Dec. 1878, Letters Received, File 1405–1878, Records of the War Department, Record Group 94, NARA.
53 In 1910, there were only 27 African Americans living in Lincoln County. Billington, Monroe Lee, “A Profile of Blacks in New Mexico on the Eve of Statehood,” Password, 32, 2 (Summer 1987), 55–66, 59Google Scholar. For an overview of African American life during the territorial era and early statehood see Glasrud, Bruce, African American History in New Mexico: Portraits from Five Hundred Years (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013)Google Scholar.
54 Otero, Miguel A. Jr., The Real Billy the Kid: With New Light on the Lincoln County War (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1998), 133Google Scholar.
55 Biographical entries for Otero, Miguel A. and Otero, Miguel A. Jr. in Vigil, Maurilio E., ed., Los Patrones: Profiles of Hispanic Political Leaders in New Mexico History (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980), 45–48, 101–3Google Scholar.
56 Otero.
57 Ibid., 133.
58 Otero's Depression-era embrace of the Kid as a “social bandit” must be understood as a twentieth-century expression of political and cultural sentiments, rather than a rigorously researched documentation of the feelings of all Hispanos during the Kid's lifetime. When Otero met Bonney in 1881, the Otero family and other prominent Hispanos of central and northern New Mexico shared little in common financially or socially with the subsistence-farming Hispanos who became embroiled in the Lincoln County War. For additional insight into Otero's biography see John-Michael Rivera's introduction in Otero, xi–xlv.
59 Otero, 132. See also Rudulph, Charles Frederick, “Los Bilitos”: The Story of “Billy the Kid” and His Gang (New York: Carlton Press, 1980)Google Scholar; Mares, E. A., “The Waggle-Taggle Outlaws: Vicente Silva and Billy the Kid as Seen in Two Nineteenth Century Documents,” in Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda, ed., Pasó Por Aquí: Critical Essays on the New Mexican Literary Tradition, 1542–1988 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989), 167–82Google Scholar.
60 Montgomery, “Becoming ‘Spanish-American.’” See also Gonzales, “Political Construction of Latino Nomenclatures”; and Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood, 51–104.
61 Thomas D. Hall notes the class division of this era: “The few upper-class Hispanos who became involved in the expanding capitalist market not only maintained, but improved, their position. They were able to capitalize on their class position to become the middle-men between the new and the traditional cultures.” Hall, Social Change in the Southwest, 231–32. See also Meinig, Southwest, 27–35; Boyle, Susan Calafate, Los Capitalistas: Hispano Merchants and the Santa Fe Trade (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Hall, 167–236; Chávez, John, The Lost Land: The Chicano Image of the Southwest (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 43–84 Google Scholar.
62 For this process of dispossession see especially Montoya, Maria, Translating Property: The Maxwell Land Grant and the Controversy over Property in the American West, 1840–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Acuña, Rodolfo, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York: Longman, 2007), 133–50Google Scholar; and Mora, Anthony P., Border Dilemmas: Racial and National Uncertainties in New Mexico, 1848–1912 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. US Department of the Interior, Population Schedules of the Tenth Census; and Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth Census: June 1, 1880, Volume I (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1883)Google Scholar, 3, 263, 72, 402, 521.
63 US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Population Schedules of the Tenth Census of the United States, 1880
64 Metz, Leon, ed. Encyclopedia of Lawmen, Outlaws, and Gunfighters (New York: 2003), 13–14 Google Scholar.
65 Nolan, The Lincoln County War, 49.
66 US Department of the Interior, Population Schedules of the Tenth Census.
67 David Johnson provides the most detailed discussion of these events in The Horrell Wars: Feuding in Texas and New Mexico (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2014)Google Scholar
68 Patrón quoted in Jacobsen, Such Men as Billy the Kid, 11.
69 Wilson, Merchants, Guns, and Money, 27–41, 73–74, 56–57; Caffey, Chasing the Santa Fe Ring, 61–84; Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance, 83–98.
70 Notable exceptions include Aragón, Cecilia, “Los Corridos de Billy the Kid – El Bilito: Contemporary Ballads and Songs about Billy the Kid from Native New Mexicans, Rudolfo Anaya and Simón Álvarez,” Camino Real, 3, 5 (2011), 37–57 Google Scholar; Rivera, John-Michael, The Emergence of Mexican America: Recovering Stories of Mexican Peoplehood in U. S. Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 110–34Google Scholar; Wallis, Michael, Billy the Kid: The Endless Ride (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 184–85Google Scholar.
71 Nolan, 383–84; Keleher, William, Violence in Lincoln County: A New Mexico Item (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1957), 218–19Google Scholar; Utley, Billy the Kid, 90–91, 98–99.
72 Lew Wallace to Carl Schurz, 31 March 1879, in Lew Wallace Papers, Collection M-0292, Box 4, Folder 7, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis, IN.
73 Maxwell quoted in Burns, Walter Noble, The Saga of Billy the Kid (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1926)Google Scholar, 185; Rudulph, “Los Bilitos”, 65, 251.
74 Utley, 186–96; Garrett, Authentic Life, 142–49; Nolan, 420–26.
75 Quotations from Otero, The Real Billy the Kid, 133–34. A series of Works Progress Administration Federal Writers’ Project interviews with local Hispanos recorded similar attitudes. Lacy, Ann, ed., Stories from Hispano New Mexico (Santa Fe: Sunstone Press, 2012), 195–220 Google Scholar.
76 In Larry McMurtry's wildly fictionalized Anything for Billy (New York: Simon Schuster, 1988)Google Scholar, for example, the narrator is a dime novelist, allowing the author to question fact and myth-making in the Old West in compelling ways. The only black character in the novel, however, is completely fantastical and racially stereotyped. The “tall nigger,” as the character is referred to throughout the novel, is an assassin from Africa who wears a turban, rides a camel, and beheads his victims with a sword! Ondaatje, Michael, The Collected Works of Billy the Kid: Left-Handed Poems (Toronto: Anansi, 1970)Google Scholar; and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (DVD, dir. Sam Peckinpah, Warner Home Video, 2006).
77 Jacobsen. For the development of a more scholarly literature on the Kid see especially Fulton, History of the Lincoln County War; the many articles published in the 1950s by Philip Rasch; and Utley.
78 Notable exceptions include works by Chamberlain, Kathleen P., In the Shadow of Billy the Kid: Susan McSween and the Lincoln County War (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013)Google Scholar; and Chamberlain, Billy the Kid and the Lincoln County War: A Bibliography.
79 US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report on Indians Taxed and Indians Not Taxed in the United States at the Eleventh Census, 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894), 398Google Scholar.
80 Sutherland, Jonathan, ed., African Americans at War: An Encyclopedia, Volume I (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2004), 332–34Google Scholar. For important insight into the experiences of African American soldiers in the decades after the Lincoln County War see Lukas, Big Trouble, 127–42, 147–53. Lukas examines the difficulties faced by the segregated Twenty-Fourth Infantry Regiment, which also served in the Spanish–American War and helped to put down labor violence in Coeur D'Alene, Idaho in 1899.
81 Montoya, Maria, “Dennis Chavez and the Making of Modern New Mexico,” in Etulain, Richard W., New Mexican Lives: Profiles and Historical Lives (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), 242–64, 245Google Scholar.
82 Ibid. See also Montoya, Maria, “The Dual World of Governor Miguel A. Otero: Myth and Reality in Turn-of-the-Century New Mexico,” New Mexico Historical Review, 67, 1 (Jan. 1992), 13–31 Google Scholar.
83 See “Presidential Geography: New Mexico,” New York Times, 15 June 2012, at http://fivethirtyeight.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/15/presidential-geography-new-mexico, accessed 5 Dec. 2015.