Performance of female Holstein calves (n = 60) were evaluated in three step-down milk feeding programmes: step-down 1 (STP1: 7.5 litres/day milk from days 1 to 21, 6 litres/day milk from days 22 to 42, 4 litres/day milk from days 43 to 63 and 2 litres/day milk from days 64 to 84 of the study); step-down 2 (STP2; 7.5 litres/day milk from days 1 to 21, 6 litres/day milk from days 22 to 42 and 2 litres/day milk from days 43 to 63 of the study); and step-down 3 (STP3; 7.5 litres/day milk from days 1 to 21, 4 litres/day milk from days 22 to 42 and 2 litres/day milk from days 43 to 63 of the study). Intakes of starter were monitored daily and body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG) and wither height (WH) were measured monthly. Calves in STP3 had lower dry matter intake between 22 and 42 days than STP2 animals, but starter intake was greater in STP2 and STP3 calves than those in the STP1 treatment between 43–63 and 64–84 days. Total ADG was greater in STP2 and STP3 animals than in STP1 calves. No effect of treatment was observed on breeding age, BW, WH or service per conception. In addition, conception rate at first breeding was not influenced by treatment. It was concluded that the STP2 and STP3 milk feeding regimes improved performance in calves and there was no benefit in feeding milk for longer than 63 days in terms of breeding outcomes.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the radiation use efficiency (RUE) and canopy structure of elephant grass varieties (Cenchrus purpureus Schum.) of contrasting statures, under monocropping or intercropped with butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea L.) in cut-and-carry systems. Two tall varieties (elephant B and IRI-381), and two dwarf ones (Mott and Taiwan A-146 2.37), were evaluated as monocrops or binary intercrops with the legume in a 2-year trial with eight harvests. Greater annual leaf biomass accumulation was observed in the monocrops of the tall variety elephant B (7.76 t/ha per year) and dwarf Mott (8.08 t/ha per year). Greater herbage bulk density (59 kg/ha per cm) and leaf area index (3.83) were recorded in canopies of dwarf Mott than in those composed of IRI-381 (37 kg/ha per cm and 3.48, respectively). In the first year, dwarf varieties Mott and Taiwan A-146 2.37 showed less RUE (0.89 and 0.84 g dry matter (DM)/MJ, respectively) than the elephant B (1.46 g DM/MJ). Higher non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC) contents were found in dwarf Mott under monocrop (180 g/kg) and in the intercrop systems. Tall varieties elephant B and IRI-381 showed greater efficiency in intercepting the radiation to accumulate herbage via stem accumulation. Dwarf Mott variety exhibited short stems and great leaf biomass accumulation that favoured denser canopies with higher content of NFCs in vegetal tissue. Planting butterfly pea into rows of elephant grass varieties can be adopted with no significant losses in RUE caused by light extinction, regardless of the grass stature.

Studying and understanding the sources of variation in early life traits in farmed deer are fundamental for management and/or breeding purposes. Data from a captive white-tailed deer population were analysed to identify non-genetic and genetic factors affecting the birth weight (BW) of fawns. The year, type of birth and sex were included in a fixed linear model to examine their significance. All of the examined non-genetic factors had a highly significant effect on BW (P<0·001). The examined years showed variation attributed to food availability affecting the gestational conditions of does. Male fawns were 193 g heavier than female fawns at birth (P<0·001), and singleton births were associated with a higher BW (2·97±0·043 kg) compared with twin (−0·261 g) and triplet (−0·642 g) fawning (P<0·001). The best-fitting animal model was selected by comparing reduced and complete models. Based on the selected animal model, which included direct genetic and common maternal effects, genetic components and parameters were estimated. The direct heritability was found to be 0·28±0·126, and a small but important contribution of common maternal environmental effects was identified (c2=0·15±0·062). The results support the importance of certain environmental factors affecting BW and indicate the relevance of direct genetic and maternal environmental influences to sustained genetic changes in BW and positively correlated traits in farmed white-tailed deer populations.

Even and successful retting of flax through application of a desiccating herbicide and stand-retting is a major constraint to increasing its incorporation in industrial products. With the release of a new form of glyphosate based on the isopropylamine (IPA) salt with biactivator (Roundup Biactive, Monsanto Ltd), a field trial was planted using three flax varieties with differing levels of ease of desiccation at the Henfaes Research Centre, University of Wales Bangor in 2004. The crop was sprayed at four different times of maturity: mid-point of flowering plus 7 days (MPF+7), MPF+14, MPF+21 or MPF+28 using two different herbicide treatments; Roundup Biactive (Monsanto PLC) or Roundup Biactive+Restore (40% ammonium sulphate, AmegA Sciences PLC). Fibre quality was assessed following retting and the ease of decortication was measured. The highest fibre yields were obtained from the MPF+28 spray date, and from the Biactive herbicide treatment. Although lower yields were recorded with the Biactive+Restore treatment, the stems were easier to decorticate. It is suggested that an early sowing date and the use of the IPA salt-based glyphosate with biactivator, and careful monitoring of the crop during the retting process, contributed to the early and successful harvest from the MPF+28 plots, allowing mature seeds as well as fibre to be harvested from the flax plants.

The grading-up system, in the Ayrshire Cattle breed, whereby the descendants of non-pedigree cows enter the registered (Herd Book) population, is studied principally from three aspects: (1) its numerical importance in the population; (2) the breeding structure of herds practising grading-up, and (3) the possible genetic effect of grading-up on milk and fat yield.

Cows at various stages of grading-up are noted in an Appendix to the Herd Book. The numerical importance of the grading-up system has varied with the rate of expansion of the breed as a whole—being greatest during the most rapid expansion—but, at all times, Appendix cows have had more registered female offspring than have pedigree cows. The volume of grading-up was regulated by the number of cows in Appendix B. Some 6% of the pedigree females registered in the last 30 years have Appendix A mothers and a further 5% or so owe their existence to grading-up during the last 30 years.

On average, the proportion of herds registering bulls is not greatly different among the herds which grade-up and those which do not. Similarly, the ratio of males to pedigree females registered was about the same in both types of herd. None-theless, there appears to be considerable selection against Appendix animals in the ancestry of bulls compared with cows, and none of the large bullbreeding studs appear to pursue a grading-up policy. A greater proportion of Ayrshire herds were grading-up in Scotland than in England.

Entry into Appendix B of the Herd Book is confined to cows reaching a qualifying yield. The daughters (A) of these B cows mated to unselected pedigree bulls were found to yield significantly more in their first lactation (36 gal. milk and 14 lb. butterfat) than contemporary pedigree Ayrshire heifers in the same Scottish milk recorded herds in 1955. Part, if not all, of this superiority is thought to be genetic.

The effect of different amounts of irrigation water on the salts in Gezira soil has been studied by comparison of different rotations in two long-term experiments at the Gezira Research Farm. The conclusion is drawn that none of the rotations studied shows any evidence of salts rising or accumulating in the profile. There is some evidence of a removal of salts from a 6 ft. profile.

Quantitative and qualitative bacteriological comparisons were made between complementary samples of cud and rumen contents using five fistulated cows receiving various diets; no marked differences were observed between samples taken from the same animal at the same time. This, with the method of collecting cud described, simplifies bacteriological evaluation of the rumen contents of intactanimals.

Multiparous Corriedale ewes were maintained on a constant feed intake such that the body weight (i.e. live weight less gravid uterus) of single-bearing ewes at the end of gestation approximated their live weight at mating. The ewes were allocated to one of five groups, designated for slaughter at 0, 50, 90, 120 and 140 days of gestation. At slaughter, the gravid uterus was removed, weighed and its components dissected out and the contents of all sections of the gastro-intestinal tract were removed, weighed and sampled.

Foetal growth was described by a Gompertz model. It was predicted that, at day 150, a twin foetus would have been 0·95 of the weight of a single foetus but this difference was not statistically significant. The foetal proportion of the gravid uterus followed a sigmoid curve during gestation to reach a predicted value of 0·60 at day 150. Predicted birth weights represented 10·4 and 18·6% of maternal body weight in single- and twin-bearing ewes.

The digesta content of the rumen and of the whole gastro-intestinal tract was not significantly affected by gestation. However, there was a tendency for the values to decline to day 90, then increase during the last third of gestation. It was suggested that the decline was due to hormonal rather than direct physical effects. By contrast, the amounts of organic digesta constituents in the rumen descreased as gestation progressed (P < 0·01) indicating an effect of gestation on rumen propulsive activity.

Brassica oil seeds grown in India are occasionally damaged by frost, causing severe losses. A technique was developed to screen germplasm at the seedling stage. Twentyfour lines of B. campestris, B. juncea and B. napus were grown in plastic boxes in a glasshouse in a mixture of peat and sand. The seedlings were frozen after hardening for 2 days at 1 °C. Observations were recorded after 4 days, using a five-point scale. Frost tolerance index (FI) is calculated as the average value for injured plants for each line. Eight lines for each of the three species were tested. B. campestrisas a group showed better frost tolerance. Some lines of Indian mustard also showed good tolerance of low temperature (– 5·5 °C). These findings show good agreement with observations recorded in the literature. The method is detailed and discussed. Suggestions for future programmes are made.

In a 7×7 diallel-cross experiment utilizing parents with varying resistance to mosaic virus disease and of different horticultural types significant heterosis over the better parent was found in number of days between sowing and flowering and over the mean of the two parents in other characters. The combining ability analysis revealed that genetic control of most character variation was due to additive effects.

It is suggested that pedigree and/or backcross methods are most appropriate for improving this chilli population.

In studies of two indeterminate cultivars in field experiments in 1985 and 1986 at Hohenheim University, the hierarchy within the reproductive storage system of field bean plants was manipulated by removal of inflorescences at various growth stages and nodes. Shading reduced pod set and seed weight mainly at basal nodes. Increasing plant population density reduced seed yield traits at all nodes. Removal of basal inflorescences increased pod set and seed weight at the remaining nodes, especially the lower ones. The favourable effects were greater under high light intensities and in sparse stands. The growth stages at which the basal inflorescences were removed and the removal of apical inflorescences were of minor importance.

Application of B-9 shortened mainstem and branch internodes of several peanut cultivars at all times of application. The numbers of mainstem and branch nodes were little affected by B-9. Interactions between cultivars and B-9 treatments in these vegetative characters were small, inconsistent and generally non-significant. B-9 had inconsistent effects on plant dry weight and did not increase pod yields. In an upright bunch type, podding was more compact, but mean seed dry weight and number of seeds per pod were slightly reduced by B-9.

Two pairs of young heifers were fed on a weighed and analysed diet, and their dung was sampled and analysed both in the fresh and in the rotted states.

It was found that the fresh dung contained about ¾ths of the nitrogen, ⅔rds of the phosphoric acid, and ⅞ths of the potash consumed by the animals in food and litter.

The dung made by the cake-fed animals was found to be more readily fermentable, and consequently more liable to loss during storage, than that made by the animals fed on roots and hay only.

The loss was found to fall chiefly on the ammoniacal nitrogen in which the cake-made dung is comparatively very rich.

Taking as a base-line the amounts of nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the dung of the animals fed on roots and hay only, it was found that the fresh dung of the cake-fed animals contained 82 per cent, of the nitrogen, and 70 per cent, of the phosphoric acid, of the cake they had consumed.

So great however was the loss of ammoniacal nitrogen from the cake-made dung, that after 6 months' storage under cover in the solid undisturbed state in which it was left in the boxes by the animals, only 37 per cent, of the nitrogen of the cake still remained in the rotted dung.

Dung is not usually kept so long as this, nor through such a hot time of the year, so that the average loss will probably be less than that found in the experiment, and ½ the nitrogen of purchased foods may very well be the average amount recovered in the dung.

The experiment shews however that, without any very flagrant mismanagement, the proportion recovered may fall considerably below ½, especially if the dung suffers further loss while lying on the surface of the land in dry weather.

1. The decline of a pea root eelworm (Heterodera göttingiana Liebscher) population, of which most eggs were formed in 1955, was measured annually from 1955 to 1958 in twenty-two microplots containing loamy sand, and measurements were continued in one of these microplots from 1960 to 1962.

2. Sampling errors increased when egg populations were more than 4 years old.

3. Two crop rotations (fallow, and maize, fallow, carrots) had no effect on decline rate from 1955 to 1958, nor did initial eelworm density.

4. After 3 years the egg population was still 48% of that in 1955. Subsequently the population declined on average by more than 50% per annum. It is suggested that host crops should not be grown more than once every five years.

5. Cysts declined more slowly, with a mean annual rate of 26%.

6. A sharp decline in eggs during the first year followed by at least one year's relative quiescence may be general in Heterodera species; with H. göttingiana unexpected crop failures may be associated in part with the prolongation of this relative quiescence for more than 1 year.

In a long-term cultivation experiment comparing mouldboard ploughing, shallow cultivation and direct drilling, soil compaction was identified as a problem. Root growth was restricted and this possibly caused a decline in grain yield of spring barley. The residual effects of a slant-legged subsoiler (Trade name, ‘Paraplow’) on the growth and yield of spring barley up to 34 months after its use were measured.

In 1982, soil not loosened with the ‘Paraplow’ had a grain yield of 5·16 t/ha and cultivation with the ‘Paraplow’ either 22 or II months previously had a negligible effect. Although the implement improved mean plant establishment by up to 12 plants/m2, compensatory tillering occurred in the treatments that initially had fewer plants, thus reducing differences in dry-matter production and grain yield at harvest. The long-term system of cultivation had a larger effect on grain yield than the ‘Paraplow’ did. Grain production on direct-drilled and shallow cultivated soils exceeded that after mouldboard ploughing by up to 0·55 t/ha (P < 0·05). The ‘Paraplow’ used 22 months previously increased grain yield by 0·47 t/ha on a direct-drilled soil that had become compacted.

In 1983, the emergence of seedlings was low (54%) due to waterlogging of the seed bed between germination and emergence. The ‘Paraplow’ used 8 months previously increased the mean number of plants that emerged by 20 plants/m2. More seedlings survived on the soil loosened by the ‘Paraplow’ because it drained more freely than the undisturbed soil. Cultivating with the ‘Paraplow’ 11, 23 and 34 months previously increased grain yield by 0·27, 0·29 and 0·13 t/ha respectively, but the mean grain yield was only 2·70 t/ha. This improvement was caused by a greater number of grains per m2 on the soils loosened with the ‘Paraplow’. Grain weight was unaffected by cultivation system or by ‘Paraplow’ treatment.

The effects of food ingestion on the total energy exchange of man and of the dog have been fairly completely worked out. Lavoisier was the first to show that the oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide production were increased by ingestion of food. Rubner, in addition to confirming these observations of Lavoisier, showed that the heat given off from the body after food was equal to the heat evolved from the foodstuffs actually oxidised within the body and thus established the agreement between direct and indirect calorimetry. He showed, further, that the increase in heat production was greatest after protein food. This specific effect of protein food he designated the “specific dynamic action.” The work of Rubner has been continued by, amongst others, Magnus-Levy, Benedict, and Lusk. The latter showed that the specific dynamic action of proteins is due to the special stimulating effect of certain amino-acids on the tissues and that the increased heat production after fat and carbohydrate ingestion is due to plethora of oxidisable molecules round the living body cells. Recently Wood and his school (1) have carried out investigations on the metabolism after food in pigs.

In anaerobic glyoolysis lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) is the terminative enzyme in the sequence of reactions that promote the breakdown of sugars to lactate. The LDH activity of cattle semen and seminal plasma together with its relationship with various characteristics of semen have been reported (Stallcup & Hayden, 1960; Roussel & Stallcup, 1965). Such work in respect of buffalo semen is not available, although there are some reports on LDH activity of spermatozoa and seminal plasma (Singh & Sadhu, 1972; Chauhan & Srivastava, 1973). The present investigation was undertaken to determine the LDH activity of buffalo whole semen as well as of seminal plasma and to find correlations with some physical characteristics of semen.

Results of our previous work were published in the Journ. of Agric. Sri., IV, 1911. There, also, a brief summary of the chief papers published on the subject of the fat globules was given, to which it is unnecessary to refer in detail here.

When the work was first commenced in 1909, the problem before us was the consideration of the variation in the size of the fat globules, with relation to churning, as regards the different breeds of cattle. The breed was considered because it was usually supposed that this was one of the chief factors which influenced churning. The most definite result of our work was that it was shown that consideration must be given to the character of the milk, irrespective of the breed. This conclusion is quite contrary to that of other workers, but an examination of their figures shows, undoubtedly, that this is actually the case: the results given by Woll (Digestion Expts., Seventh Annual Report, Agric. Expt. Stat, Wisconsin, 1890, 238; also Agric. Sci., 1892, vi, 445) emphasise this point particularly. It is also shown by this year's work, as may be seen from Tables V–XI.

The comparative size of the globules has been worked out very thoroughly by Gutzeit, who measured the mean volume of the globule. Other workers give their results as “relative sizes.” In our work we attempted to ascertain the distribution of the fat in the globules, and to this end the number of globules of each size was determined, and curves were drawn. The result of this, however, was negative. At that time we were considering the breeds of the cows from which the milks were obtained; had we considered them solely as milks of a certain mean size of globule, much more might have been achieved.

An apparatus was devised to give an absolute figure for the churnability of any cream, but, until the effect of the other factors has been determined, it is impossible to interpret the results. Some experiments to ascertain the optimum temperature were described also.

Experiments made over a period of 3 years (1971–73) at Pantnagar, India, on the effect of plant density and spatial arrangement of a hybrid variety of maize (Ganga 2) and a local cultivar (Rudrapur) indicated that a density of (at least) 75000 plants/ha is necessary to obtain maximum grain yield. With increasing density from 25000 to 75000 plants/ha the date when 75 % of plants were silking was delayed 2–5 days and the percentage of barren plants increased from 1·7 to 28·7. In dense stands, grain yield of the hybrid variety was less affected by increasing row width from 60 to 90 cm than it was in the local cultivar.

The average increase in yield with narrow (60 cm) row width as compared with wider (75 cm) row width was 6.8 % and it is argued that, in the context of the national need for increased food production, this increase cannot be overlooked.