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Aspects of Turkana Leadership during the Era of Primary Resistance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

John Lamphear
John Lamphear
Affiliation:
DePauw University, Indiana
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Extract

After a considerable period of conflict with nineteenth-century traders, hunters and ‘explorers’, the Turkana of northwestern Kenya actively resisted the occupation of their country by the Imperial forces of British East Africa and Uganda during the second and third decades of the twentieth century. At first, this primary resistance was largely in the hands of war-leaders, notably Ebei, the most important military leader of the southern sections. Bitterness engendered by Hut Taxes and other unpopular British policies led to the brief ascendancy of Koletiang, an influential southern diviner, until he was imprisoned in 1911. Again the resistance leadership fell to the military until especially brutal ‘punitive actions’ in 1915 had the effect of consolidating resistance in the north. At this point, Lowalel, another powerful diviner, became the spiritual patron of the war-leaders and their followers, reaffirming the close co-operation which traditionally had existed between religious and military leaders in Turkana society. So charismatic and innovative was Lowalel's leadership that he amassed armies several thousand strong and was joined by other peoples including the Merille and Dongiro, as well as by the forces of the Ethiopian Empire, in resisting the extension of British colonial rule.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 17 , Issue 2 , April 1976 , pp. 225 - 243
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1976

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References

1 The term ‘Central Paranilotic’, is used to describe that linguistic group formerly, but very incorrectly, called ‘Central Nilo-Hamitic’, or, more recently, ‘Plains Nilotic’. For a fuller description of the Turkana expansions, see Lamphear, J. E., The Traditional History of the Jie of Uganda (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1976), chapter vGoogle Scholar. The population estimate is based on Kenya National Archives [KNA], [file number] PRB/211: E. von Otter, ‘Description of Turkana District’.

2 Kenya Land Commission [KLC]—Evidence and Memoranda, vol. 11 (London, 1934)Google Scholar: District Commissioner's Letter, 19 Sept. 1932; Rayne, H., The Ivory Raiders (London, 1923), 49Google Scholar. For a detailed picture of the ecology and transhumance of the Turkana, see Gulliver, P. H., The Family Herds (London, 1955), 20–48.Google Scholar

3 Loita and Nangol, T–20, 23/12/70. [Transcriptions of oral interviews conducted with the Turkana in 1967 and 1970 are cited as follows: the names of the informants, followed by the number of the interview, and finally the date. Interviews with informants in Karamoja conducted between 1969 and 1971 are cited in the same way, but with ‘D’, to indicate a Dodos interview, ‘BK’, for Bokora Karimojong, ‘TK’, for Tome Karimojong, and ‘J’, for Jie.] See also Gulliver, P. H., A Preliminary Survey of the Turkana (Cape Town, 1950), 50Google Scholar; Austin, H. H., Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa (London, 1902), 255Google Scholar; Rainsford, W. S., The Land of the Lion (New York, 1909), 223.Google Scholar

4 For a full description of the generation-set system, see Gulliver, P. H., ‘Turkana Age Organization’, American Anthropologist, lx (1958)Google Scholar. See also Gulliver, , Survey, 127–8 and 173–7Google Scholar. The suggestion that the Turkana system was upset because of difficulties in communication, and decreased in importance as a result, is my own.

5 Gulliver, , Survey, 57–66.Google Scholar

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7 Pelekec (and others), T–J, 5/6/70; Lomoru and Lokuu, T–8, 5/6/70; Lokimak, T–14, 22/8/70; Isaac Lomorukai and Kinyang, T–17, 20/12/70; George Ekai, T–21, 16/8/67.

8 Cavendish, H. S. H., ‘Through Somaliland and around and south of Lake Rudolf’, Geographical Journal [G.J.], xi (1898), 388Google Scholar. See also Barber, James, Imperial Frontier (Nairobi, 1968), 88.Google Scholar

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10 T–4 and T–8. A good picture of the Turkana military system can be achieved from the following sources: Foreign Office Confidential Prints [FOCP]—7954: W. E. Rumbold 'Notes on the Suk and Turkana'; KNA–PRB/211: S. B. Kittermaster, ‘History of the Turkana’, 51–2; ibid., Captain Masterman, ‘Notes on the Turkana’, 144; Cavendish, ‘Somaliland’, 388–9; White, R. F., ‘Notes on the Turkana Tribe’, Sudan Notes and Records, iii (1920), 218Google Scholar; Barton, J., ‘Notes on the Turkana Tribe’, Part I, Journal of the African Society, xx (1921), 113–14Google Scholar; Gulliver, , Survey, 143 and 146.Google Scholar

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12 Rainsford, Land; 223; Austin, , Swamps, 246–7, 265 and 283Google Scholar; Barton, ‘Notes’, 112; KLC: R. W. Baker-Beall, ‘Memorandum’, 1763.

13 SirJackson, Frederick, Early Days in East Africa (London, 1030), 126–7Google Scholar; Rayne, Raiders, 39–40Google Scholar. For the Kikuyu parallel, see Muriuki, Godfrey, ‘Kikuyu Reaction to Traders and British Administration, 1850–1904’, in Ogot, Bethwell A. (ed.), HadithI (Nairobi 1968)Google Scholar For full accounts of some of the European expeditions, see von Höhnel, L., Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, vol. 11 (London, 1894)Google Scholar; and Cavendish, ‘Somaliland’.

14 Wellby, M. S., ‘King Menelik's Domains and the Country Between Lake Gallop (Rudolf) and the Nile Valley’, G.J., xxvi (1900), 300Google Scholar. See also his Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901), 266 and 268, where he describes them as ‘all very friendly disposed’, and ‘always friendly and merry’.

15 For accounts of Austin's expeditions, see his With Macdonald in Uganda (London, 1903). 209–15; ‘Lake Rudolf,’ G.J., xiv, 2 (1899), 149–51; Swamps, 188–90, 206–7; and 248–50; and ‘A Journey from Omdurman via Lake Rudolf, G.J., xix (1902), 680–2. For an account of Chedeuvre's expedition, see de Leontieff, N., ‘Exploration des Provinces équatoriales d’, Abissine’, La Giographie, 11 (1900)Google Scholar; and for an account of the expedition of 1903, see Brooke, J. W., ‘A Journey West and North of Lake Rudolf’, G.J., xxv, 5 (1905)Google Scholar. See also KNA-PRB/211: McKean, J. D., ‘Notes on Northern Turkana History’, 116Google Scholar; and Butzer, Karl W., Recent History of an Ethiopian Delta (Chicago, 1971), 141–2.Google Scholar

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17 Lokadelio, and Esiokon, , T–2, 4/6/70Google Scholar; KNA-HOR/886: Baker-Beall, ‘Reference’, 5; Entebbe Archives [EA—4325 (Part II): J. Rainsford, ‘Notes and Intelligence … List of Hostile Chiefs’; KNA–PRB/211: Barton, C. J. J., ‘Political History’, 10 and 14–15Google Scholar; FOCP: Rumbold, ‘Notes’ The Earl of Lytton, The Desert and the Green (London, 1957), 198.

18 KLC: McKean, ‘Notes’, 1761; KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 2–3; ibid., Kittennaster, ‘History’, 238; Rainsford, , Land, 211–12Google Scholar; Rayne, , Raiders, 13–16, 23–8, 32 and 55.Google Scholar

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20 KLC: McKean, ‘Notes’, 1761; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 210Google Scholar; KNA–PRB/221: Kittermaster, ‘History’, 216 and 226–8; EA–1049 (Part II): Report of T. Grant, 13 Feb. 1911.

21 KNA–PRB/211: A. Bruce , ‘Position and Influence of Koletiang …'; ibid., Kitter-master, ‘Medicine Men’, 239; ibid., Barton, ‘History’, 6–7; KNA-AR/1053: A. Bruce, ‘Report on the Turkana District…1912–1913’; KLC: Evidence of A. C. Hoey, 2000; ibid., Memorandum of C. H.Adams, 1907.

22 KNA-AR/1054: D. R. Crampton, ‘Annual Reports—1914’; KNA–PRB/211: Kittermaster, ‘History’, 227–8. For the Giriama parallel, see Temu, A. J., ‘The Giriama War, 1914–1915’, in Ogot, B. A. (ed.), War and Society in Africa (London, 1972), 225Google Scholar; see also Ogot's introduction, 6.

23 Nawoto, T–19, 22/12/70.

24 See Ranger, T. O., Revolt in Southern Rhodesia 1896–7 (London, 1967), 349.Google Scholar

25 KNA-AR/1053: Bruce, ‘Report’; KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 8; ibid., A. Bruce, ‘Tribal Divisions—Turkana’; ibid., Masterman, ‘Notes’, 155; see also Ranger, , Revolt, 350.Google Scholar

26 KNA–PRB/211: Bruce, ‘Koletiang’; ibid., A.Bruce, ‘Koletiang’; ibid., A. Bruce, ‘Koletiang, Turkana Witch Doctor, 13/12/12’.

27 KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 8–10; ibid., Bruce, ‘Division’; KNA-AR/1053: Bruce ‘Report’; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 210Google Scholar; KNA-AR/1054: Crampton, ‘Reports’.

28 Colonial Office Confidential Prints [COCP]—870/88: ‘Report from Mr. Dashwood… July 1905’; ibid., Harrington to Lansdowne, 30 Nov. 1905; Maud, P., ‘Exploration in the Southern Borderland of Abyssinia’, G.J., xxm (1905)Google Scholar; FOCP —9946: Dought-Wylie to Grey, 6 May 1911. See also Barber, , Frontier, 49–50, 96–7 and 99Google Scholar; and KLC: McKean, ‘Notes’, 1760.

29 Gwynn, C. W., ‘A Journey in Southern Abyssinia’, G.J., xxxvm, 1911Google Scholar; COCP—8791/103: ‘Memorandum … on the Military Situation in the East African Protectorate and Uganda’; Darley, Henry, Slaves and Ivory in Abyssinia (New York, 1935), 83–6, 91 and 124Google Scholar; Barber, Frontier, 50 and 112–14.

30 COCP—879/105: Memorandum by the Inspector General, Appendix ‘D’: ‘Situation in Uganda’; FOCP—10083: Grey to Chatham, 25 July 1911; KNA–PRB/211: Kittermaster, ‘History’, 217; EA—2119: Report of H. M. Tufnell, 21 Oct. 1911.

31 Longatunymoe, and Men, D–7, 26/6/70Google Scholar; T–2- KNA–PRB–211: Barton, ‘History’, 8 and 11–12; KNA–ARI1054: Crampton, ‘Reports’; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 211 and 252–3.Google Scholar

32 Barber, , Frontier, 173Google Scholar; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 252–6.Google Scholar

33 KNA–PRBI211: Crampton's penned additions to Kittermaster, ‘History’, 229–30; ibid., Barton, ‘History’, 13–17; KNA–AR/1054: Crampton, ‘Reports’; KNA–AR/1172: L. F. Athill, ‘Samburu, Rendille, Turkana District Reports, 1914/15’; KLC: Evidence of E. B. Hosking, 1909.

34 Lobalong (Joseph), J–130, 4/2/71; KNA/AR/1056: D. R. Crampton, ‘West Suk District Annual Reports…’; KNA–AR/1059: C. J. J. Barton, ‘Annual Report… Kacheliba, 1/3/20’; KNA–AR/1174: Athill, ‘Samburu’; KNA–AR/1174: A. A. G.Ashton, ‘Uaso Nyiro Post Report … 1915’.

35 KNA–PRB/211. Barton, ‘Political History’, 17–19; EA–3706 (Part II); W. F. S. Edwards, ‘Operational Order Number 1’; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 439Google Scholar; Aleper (and others), BK–7, 7/11/70; Collins, R. O., ‘The Turkana Patrol, 1918’, Uganda joumal. xxv, i (1961), 19Google Scholar; Barber, , Frontier, 176.Google Scholar

36 T–2; Eremon, Lomothingo (and others), T–3, 4/6/70; KNA–PRB/211: Masterman, ‘Notes’, 159–60; ibid., Barton, ‘History’, 3; ibid., Kittermaster, ‘History’, 238; KNA–AR/1056: Crampton, ‘Suk’; EA–3706 (Part II): Edwards, ‘Order’; Barton, ‘Notes’, 206–7; Lytton, , Desert, 196 and 260.Google Scholar

37 Rayne, , Raiders, 90–91.Google Scholar

38 See Ranger, , Revolt, 351Google Scholar; and for a detailed study of Nandi resistance, see Matson, A. T., Nandi Resistance (Nairobi, 1972)Google Scholar; and Samuel, arap Ngeny, , ‘Nandi Resistance to the establishment of British Administration 1883–1906’, in Ogot, B. A. (ed.), Hadith ii (Nairobi, 1970).Google Scholar

39 See Gwassa, G. C. K., ‘African Methods of Warfare During the Maji Maji War 1905–1907’, in Ogot, B. A. (ed.), War and Society, especially 146Google Scholar; Ranger, , Revolt, 346.Google Scholar

40 KN–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 11–12, 15, and 28; ibid., Masterman, ‘Notes’, 159–60; Lytton, , Desert, 196Google Scholar; EA—4933: Report of D. R. Crampton, 16/10/16; FOCP—10400: ‘Summarized Report of the Maji Mission’; Cambridge, T. R., In the Land of the Turkana (London, 1921), 59–60.Google Scholar

41 King ‘Topotha’, 74.

42 EA—4340: Report of Tufnell concerning … Chief Egiot, 28/1/15; ibid., Report of Inspection Water, 15/12/14; Barber, , Frontier, 188Google Scholar; KNA–AR/1053: Bruce, ‘Report’; KNA–AR/1054: Crampton, ‘Reports’.

43 Rayne, , Raiders, 86–7Google Scholar; KNA–HOR/886: [E.K.] Shackleton, ‘Handing Over Report’; ibid., Rowlands, ‘History’; KLC: McKean, ‘Notes’, 1760.

44 KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 23–4; Loram(Ecai) and Balo (Arengimoe), TK–1, 29/12/70; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 440Google Scholar; Rayne, , Raiders, 49–50 and 72.Google Scholar

45 Rayne, , Raiders, 48–9.Google Scholar

46 KNA–PRB/2U: Barton, ‘History’, 25–6 and 33; Moyse-Bartlett, , Rifles, 440 and 442Google Scholar; KLC: Evidence of Champion, A. M. (1932), 1730Google Scholar; Rayne, , Raiders, 87 and 105.Google Scholar

47 A fairly detailed account of the expedition, written mainly from the point of view of Sudan archival sources, can be found in Collins, ‘Patrol’, Kenya archival sources, including KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’; ibid., ‘Frontier Affairs’, and KNA–HOR/886: Rowlands, ‘History’, contain additional information. Other primary sources for the expedition include Rayne, Raiders, and Cambridge, Turkana.

48 KLC: Champion, ‘Evidence (1932)’, 1729; ibid., Evidence of Champion, A. M. (1933), 1765 and 1767Google Scholar; ibid., Baker-Beal, ‘Memorandum’, 1763; KNA–PRB/211: Barton, ‘History’, 33–5; Cambridge, Turkana, 58, 69, 71 and 73. I am grateful to P. H. Gulliver who, in personal communication of 29 May 1975, emphasized to me the difficulty the Turkana must have had in maintaining a large military force for any extended period, even in the best of times.

49 See FOCP–10400: ‘Maji Mission’; KNA–PRB/211: McKean, ‘Notes’, 178; ibid., ‘Frontier Affairs’, 3; KNA–HOR/886; Rowlands, ‘History’, 5–6 and 27.

50 KNA–PRB/2H: Masterman, ‘Notes’, 158–60, 163 and 168; Hodson, Arnold, ‘Journey from Maji…’, G.J., lxxiii, 5 (1929), 402–4Google Scholar; KNA–HOR/886: L. F. Nalder, ‘Abyssinian Frontier Tribes’.

51 KNA–PRB/211: McKean, ‘Notes’, 119; Masterman, ‘Notes’, 160–1. See also Handing Over Report of P. S.Osborne, E. H.Windley and J. W.Cusack in KNA–HOR/886. For information on Otter, see Lytton, Desert.