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School Teachers and Soft Decolonisation in Dutch–Indonesian Relations, 1945–1949

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2021

Agus Suwignyo
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Abstract

The emergence of two states in Indonesia in the aftermath of the Second World War, namely the Republic of Indonesia and the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration, instigated a war that imposed citizenship, which schoolteachers had to choose carefully. By examining the quest for professional trajectories of Dutch and Indonesian schoolteachers during the 1945–1949 period, this paper argues that expanding citizenship fostered decolonisation through the teachers’ detachment from a shared dream of social mobility. The post–World War II reconstruction project, which is largely depicted as narratives of state building in many of the existing bibliographies, reflected a growing discontent in teachers’ expectations for economic reestablishment at the personal levels. The teachers’ detachment from a shared dream of social mobility reflected the dissolution of an imagined community where transnational cultural identities had met and melded in the early twentieth century. In contrast to the emerging historiography that emphasises atrocities and violence, this paper offers a perspective on the soft process of decolonisation.

Keywords

BersiapRevolusischoolteachersNetherlandsIndonesiadecolonisationcitizenship
Type
Article
Information
Itinerario , Volume 46 , Issue 1 , April 2022 , pp. 150 - 171
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

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References

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Frakking, Roel, and Thomas, Martin. “Indrukken van de Microdynamiek van Revolutionair en Contrarevolutionair Geweld.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 135:2 (2020): 111–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, James W. Preparing American Teachers: A History. New York: Teachers College Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Govaars-Tjia, Ming T. N. Dutch Colonial Education: The Chinese Experience in Indonesia, 1900–1942. Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
Groeneboer, Kees. Gateway to the West: The Dutch Language in Colonial Indonesia 1600–1950; A History of Language Policy. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harmanny, Azarja, and Linn, Brian MCallister. “‘Technisch Geweld’ in de Nederlands-Indonesische Oorlog: Zware Wapens in de Periode van Decolonisatie.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 135:2 (2020): 93–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Jensz, Felicity. “Non-European Teachers in Mission School: An Introduction.” Itinerario 40:3 (2016): 389–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jong, L. de. The Collapse of a Colonial Society: The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. London: Penguin Group, 2005.Google Scholar
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Nordholt, Henk Schulte. “Indonesia in the 1950s: Nation, Modernity and the Post-colonial State.” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 167:4 (2011): 386–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordholt, Henk Schulte. “Modernity and Cultural Citizenship in the Netherlands Indies: An Illustrated Hypothesis.” Journal of Southeast Asia 42:3 (2011): 435–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poeze, Harry A., et al. Di Negeri Penjajah: Orang Indonesia di Negeri Belanda 1600–1950. Trans. Soesman, Monique et al. Jakarta: Gramedia, 2008.Google Scholar
Raben, Remco. “On Genocide and Mass Violence in Colonial Indonesia.” Journal of Genocide Research 14: 3–4 (2012): 485–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Reid, Anthony. The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950. Hawthorn: Longman Australia, 1974.Google Scholar
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Stoler, Ann Laura. Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.Google Scholar
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Pranoto, Suhartono W.. Revolusi Agustus: Nasionalisme Terpasung dan Diplomasi Internasional. Yogyakarta: Lapera Pustaka Utama, 2001.Google Scholar
Sutherland, Heather. The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi. Singapore: Heineman Books, 1978.Google Scholar
Teeuw, A. “De Cultureel Betrekkingen tussen Nederland en Indonesië.” Spiegel Historiael. Maandblad voor Geschiedenis en Archeologie 21:3 (1986): 140–5.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Commerce. Japanese Military Administration in Indonesia. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technical Services, 1963.Google Scholar
Wong, Francis, ed. Teachers Education in ASEAN. Singapore: Heinemann Educational Books, 1976.Google Scholar
Mangunwijaya, Yusuf Bilyarta. Burung-Burung Manyar. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas, 1981 (repr. 2019).Google Scholar
Zaalberg, Thijs Brocades, and Luttikhuis, Bart. “Extreem Geweld tijdens Decolonisatieoorlogen in Vergelijkend Perspectief, 1945–1962.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 135:2 (2020): 34–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Indonesian National Archives (ANRI), JakartaGoogle Scholar
Algemeene Secretarie no. 658,Google Scholar
no. 659,Google Scholar
no. 668,Google Scholar
no. 674,Google Scholar
no. 720,Google Scholar
Nationaal Archief, The HagueGoogle Scholar
Openbaar Verbaal 31 December 1953 no. 79, Inventory no. 4221.Google Scholar
Pringgodigdo, A. K.. “Toelating van Niet-Europeesche Leerlingen tot de Europeesche Lagere School,” in Supplement op het Triwindoe Gedenkboek Mangkoe Nagoro VII, ed. n.n., 315–30. Soerakarta: Het Comité voor het Triwindoe Gedenkboek, 1940.Google Scholar
Algemeen Verslag van het Onderwijs in Nederlandsch-Indië over het Schooljaar 1933/1934, 2nd vol. Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1936.Google Scholar
Algemeen Verslag van het Onderwijs in Nederlandsch-Indië over het Schooljaar 1934/1935, 1st vol. Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1937.Google Scholar
Algemeen Verslag van het Onderwijs in Nederlandsch-Indië over het Schooljaar 1935/1936, 2nd vol. Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1938.Google Scholar
Algemeen Verslag van het Onderwijs in Nederlandsch-Indië over het Schooljaar 1936/1937, 2nd vol. Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1939.Google Scholar
Court, J. F. H. Alb. de la. Paedagogische Richtlijnen voor Indonesië. Deventer: Uitgeverij W. van Hoeve, 1945.Google Scholar
Court, J. F. H. A. de la. “Some Proposals for Postwar Education in Indonesia.” The Far Eastern Quarterly 5:2 (1946): 152–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Departement van Economische Zaken Centraal Kantoor voor de Statistiek. Statistik Pengadjaran Rendah di Indonesia (1/6 1947). Batavia: Centraal Kantoor voor de Statistiek, 1948.Google Scholar
Information and Publicity Section of the Netherlands Indies Government Department of Education. Education in Indonesia before, during and after the Pacific War. Batavia: Miechiel Vervoort, 1948.Google Scholar
Inspectie Inlandsch Onderwijs Algemeene Dienst. Alamanak Goeroe 1939. Batavia: Balai Poestaka, 1938.Google Scholar
Kementerian Pendidikan, Pengadjaran dan Kebudajaan Republik Indonesia Serikat. Beberapa Angka jang Mengenai Keadaan Pengadjaran pada Permulaan Tahun Pengadjaran 1949–1950. Djakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan, Pengadjaran dan Kebudajaan, 1950.Google Scholar
Mook, H. J. van. “Indonesia.” International Affairs 25:3 (1949): 274–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Netherlands Indies Government Information Service. The Indonesian Problem: Facts and Factors; What Happened since the End of the Pacific War. Batavia: Netherlands Indies Government Information Service, 1947.Google Scholar
Oorthuys, Cas. Een Staat in Wording: Foto Reportage over het Indonesië van Heden. Met tekst van Albert de la Court. Amsterdam-Antwerp: Uitgeverij Contact, 1947 (repr. 2009).Google Scholar
Overdijkink, G. W. Het Indonesische Probleem: Nieuwe Feiten. Amsterdam: N.V. Uitgeverij Keizerskroon, 1948.Google Scholar
Schrader, R. “Pemandangan tentang Pengadjaran Sekarang.” In Radio Batavia: Pidato2 Lezingen Juli–Oktober 1947, by Afdeeling Voorlichting Departement Onderwijs en Eeredienst, n.p. Batavia: Balai Pustaka, 1948.Google Scholar
Schreuder, C. “De Nieuwe Onderwijzersoleiding in Indië.” In Kritieken en Beschouwingen over de Nieuwe Onderwijzersopleiding in Indië, 6–14. Groningen, Batavia, Den Haag: J.B. Wolters, 1932.Google Scholar
Steiner, H. Arthur. “Post-war Government of the Netherlands East Indies.” Journal of Politics 9:4 (1947): 624–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wal, S. L. van der. Het Onderwijsbeleid in Nederlands-Indië: Een Bronnenpublikatie. Groningen: J.B. Wolters, 1963.Google Scholar
Wal, S. L van der. Some Information on Education in Indonesia up to 1942: With a Bibliography. The Hague: NUFFIC, 1961.Google Scholar
Wolf, Charles Jr.. “The Men Who Made Merdeka.” Far Eastern Survey 16:16 (1947): 181–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suwignyo, Agus. “The Making of Politically Conscious Indonesian Teachers in Public Schools, 1930–42.” Southeast Asian Studies 3:1 (2014): 119–49.Google Scholar
Dwi, Amurwani et al. Sejarah Indonesia: Buku Guru. Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2014.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict R.O'G. “Old State, New Society: Indonesia's New Order in Comparative Historical Perspective.” Journal of Asian Studies 42:3 (1983): 477–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appuhn, Karl. “Microhistory.” In Encyclopedia of European Social History, Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/microhistory, 2020. Accessed on 15 January 2021.Google Scholar
Pratiwi, Ardela Iga. “Antara Otoritas dan Simbiol: Babu dalam Keluarga Eropa di Jawa pada 1900–1942.” Master's thesis, Gadjah Mada University, 2018.Google Scholar
Bank, Jan. Katholieken en de Indonesische Revolutie. Baarn: Amboboeken, 1983.Google Scholar
Baudet, H. “Woord Vooraf.” Spiegel Historiael: Maandblad voor Geschiedenis en Archeologie 21:3 (1986): 106–7.Google Scholar
Bloembergen, Marieke, and Kuitenbrouwer, Vincent. “A New Dutch Imperial History: Connecting Dutch and Overseas Past.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 128:1 (2013): 1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogaerts, Els, and Raben, Remco. Beyond Empire and Nation: Decolonizing Societies in Africa and Asia, 1930s–1970s. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. “Decolonization and Citizenship: Africa between Empires and a World of Nation,” in Beyond Empire and Nation: Decolonizing Societies in Africa and Asia, 1930s–1970s, ed. Bogaerts, Els and Raben, Remco, 39–67. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dhakidae, Daniel. Cendekiawan dan Kekuasaan dalam Negara Orde Baru. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2003.Google Scholar
Drooglever, P. J. “Nederlands-Indonesische Betrekkingen 1945–1950.” Spiegel Historiael: Maandblad voor Geschiedenis en Archeologie 21:3 (1986): 116–20.Google Scholar
Essen, Mineke van. Kwekeling tussen Akte en Ideaal. De Opleiding tot Onderwijzer(es) vanaf 1800. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij SUN, 2006.Google Scholar
Fasseur, C. “Cornerstone and Stumbling Block: Racial Classification and the Late Colonial State in Indonesia,” in The Late Colonial State in Indonesia: Political and Economic Foundations of the Netherlands Indies 1880–1942, ed. Cribb, Robert, 31–56. Leiden: KITLV, 1994.Google Scholar
Frakking, Roel, and Thomas, Martin. “Indrukken van de Microdynamiek van Revolutionair en Contrarevolutionair Geweld.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 135:2 (2020): 111–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, James W. Preparing American Teachers: A History. New York: Teachers College Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Govaars-Tjia, Ming T. N. Dutch Colonial Education: The Chinese Experience in Indonesia, 1900–1942. Singapore: Chinese Heritage Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
Groeneboer, Kees. Gateway to the West: The Dutch Language in Colonial Indonesia 1600–1950; A History of Language Policy. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harmanny, Azarja, and Linn, Brian MCallister. “‘Technisch Geweld’ in de Nederlands-Indonesische Oorlog: Zware Wapens in de Periode van Decolonisatie.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 135:2 (2020): 93–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huesgen, Jan. “The Recruitment, Training and Conflicts Surrounding ‘Native Teachers’ in the Moravian Mission in the Danish West Indies in the Nineteenth Century.” Itinerario 40:3 (2016): 451–65.Google Scholar
Badrika, I Wayan. Sejarah Nasional Indonesia dan Umum 2. Untuk SMU Kelas 2. Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga, 2003.Google Scholar
Jensz, Felicity. “Non-European Teachers in Mission School: An Introduction.” Itinerario 40:3 (2016): 389–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jong, L. de. The Collapse of a Colonial Society: The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. London: Penguin Group, 2005.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, Julianto. Bandit dan Pejuang di Simpang Bengawan: Kriminalitas dan Kekerasan Masa Revolusi di Surakarta. Wonogiri: Bina Citra Pustaka, 2004.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, Julianto. Dinamika Sosial dan Politik Masa Revolusi Indonesia. Yogyakarta: UGM Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Kahin, George Mc. T. “Some Recollections and Reflections on the Indonesian Revolution.” Indonesia 60 (1995): 1–16.Google Scholar
Penerangan, Kementerian. Daerah Istimewa Jogjakarta. Kementerian Penerangan Republik Indonesia, 1953.Google Scholar
Kemperman, Jeroen. “Introduction.” In The Collapse of a Colonial Society: The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War, by de Jong, L., 1–46. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Kisantal, Tamás. “What Is Microhistory? Theory and Practice by István M. Szijártó and Sigurður Gylfi Magnússon.” Hungarian Historical Review 4:2 2015): 512–7.Google Scholar
Lansing, Charles B. From Nazism to Communism: German Schoolteachers under Two Dictatorships. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legge, John D. Kaum Intelektual dan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan: Peranan Kelompok Sjahrir. Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti, 1993.Google Scholar
Luttikhuis, Bart, and Moses, A. Dirk. “Mass Violence and the End of the Dutch Colonial Empire in Indonesia.” Journal of Genocide Research 14:3–4 (2012): 257–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijer, Hans. “Tom van de Berge: H. J. van Mook 1894–1965. Een Vrije n Gelukkig Indonesië.” BMGN Low Countries Historical Review 130:3 (2015): Review 56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchori, Mochtar. Evolusi Pendidikan di Indonesia: Dari Kweekschool Sampai ke IKIP 1852–1998. Yogyakarta: Insist Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Niel, Robert van. The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite. Dordrecht: Cinnaminson, 1984.Google Scholar
Niel, Robert van. “H. J. van Mook and Indonesian Independence: A Study of His Role in Dutch–Indonesian Relations 1945–48 by Yon Mun Cheong.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 15:2 (1984): 397–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordholt, Henk Schulte. “Indonesia in the 1950s: Nation, Modernity and the Post-colonial State.” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 167:4 (2011): 386–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordholt, Henk Schulte. “Modernity and Cultural Citizenship in the Netherlands Indies: An Illustrated Hypothesis.” Journal of Southeast Asia 42:3 (2011): 435–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poeze, Harry A., et al. Di Negeri Penjajah: Orang Indonesia di Negeri Belanda 1600–1950. Trans. Soesman, Monique et al. Jakarta: Gramedia, 2008.Google Scholar
Raben, Remco. “On Genocide and Mass Violence in Colonial Indonesia.” Journal of Genocide Research 14: 3–4 (2012): 485–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, Anthony. To Nation by Revolution: Indonesia in the 20th Century. Singapore: NUS Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, Anthony. The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950. Hawthorn: Longman Australia, 1974.Google Scholar
Rempe, Martin, and Torp, Claudius. “Cultural Brokers and the Making of Global Soundscapes 1880s–1930s.” Itinerario 41: 2 (2017): 223–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassan, Said Hamid, Margana, Sri, Kanumoyoso, Bondan, and Brahmantyo, Kresno. History of Indonesia: A Resource Book. Jakarta: Directorate of History Ministry of Education and Culture, 2020.Google Scholar
Poerbakawatja, Soegarda. Pendidikan dalam Alam Indonesia Merdeka. Jakarta: Gunung Agung, 1970.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Imperial Debris: On Ruins and Ruination. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Pranoto, Suhartono W.. Revolusi Agustus: Nasionalisme Terpasung dan Diplomasi Internasional. Yogyakarta: Lapera Pustaka Utama, 2001.Google Scholar
Sutherland, Heather. The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi. Singapore: Heineman Books, 1978.Google Scholar
Teeuw, A. “De Cultureel Betrekkingen tussen Nederland en Indonesië.” Spiegel Historiael. Maandblad voor Geschiedenis en Archeologie 21:3 (1986): 140–5.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Commerce. Japanese Military Administration in Indonesia. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technical Services, 1963.Google Scholar
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