Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-29T13:11:00.490Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fatal attraction: a critique of Carl Schmitt's international political and legal theory

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 June 2011

Benno Gerhard Teschke
Benno Gerhard Teschke*
Affiliation:
Department of International Relations, School of Global Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
*
E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The ongoing Schmitt revival has extended Carl Schmitt's reach over the fields of international legal and political theory. Neo-Schmittians suggest that his international thought provides a new reading of the history of international law and order, which validates the explanatory power of his theoretical premises – the concept of the political, political decisionism, and concrete-order-thinking. Against this background, this article mounts a systematic reappraisal of Schmitt's international thought in a historical perspective. The argument is that his work requires re-contextualization as the intellectual product of an ultra-intense moment in Schmitt's friend/enemy distinction. It inscribed Hitler's ‘spatial revolution’ into a full-scale reinterpretation of Europe's geopolitical history, grounded in land appropriations, which legitimized Nazi Germany's wars of conquest. Consequently, Schmitt's elevation of the early modern nomos as the model for civilized warfare – the ‘golden age’ of international law – against which American legal universalism can be portrayed as degenerated, is conceptually and empirically flawed. Schmitt devised a politically motivated set of theoretical premises to provide a historical counter-narrative against liberal normativism, which generated defective history. The reconstruction of this history reveals the explanatory limits of his theoretical vocabulary – friend/enemy binary, sovereignty-as-exception, nomos/universalism – for past and present analytical purposes. Schmitt's defective analytics and problematic history compromise the standing of his work for purposes of international theory.

Keywords

Carl Schmittinternational political theoryhistory of international lawinternational historical sociologygenealogy of war and peaceEuropean system of states
Type
Original Papers
Information
International Theory , Volume 3 , Issue 2 , 20 June 2011 , pp. 179 - 227
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agamben, Giorgio. 1998. Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Agamben, Giorgio 2005. State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Perry. 1974. Lineages of the Absolutist State. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Anderson, Matthew Smith. 1988. War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789. Leicester: Leicester University Press.Google Scholar
Axtmann, Roland. 2007. “Humanity or Enmity? Carl Schmitt on International Politics.” International Politics 44:531–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balakrishnan, Gopal. 2000. The Enemy: An Intellectual Portrait of Carl Schmitt. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Behnke, Andreas. 2004. “Terrorising the Political: 9/11 within the Context of the Globalisation of Violence.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 33(2):279–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beik, William. 2005. “The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration.” Past & Present 188:195–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendersky, Joseph. 2004. “Introduction: the Three Types of Juristic Thought in German Historical and Intellectual Context.” In On The Three Types of Juristic Thought, edited by C. Schmitt, 1–39. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Blackbourn, DavidEley, Geoff. 1984. The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonney, Richard (ed.). 1995. Economic Systems and State Finance. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonney, Richard (ed.) 1999. The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe, c.1200–1815. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenner, Robert. 1985. “The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism.” In The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe, edited by T.H. Aston and C.H.E. Philpin, 213–327. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenner, Robert 1993. Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's Overseas Traders, 1550–1653. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brewer, John. 1988. The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Brewer, John 1994. “The Eighteenth-Century British State: Contexts and Issues.” In An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689–1815, edited by L. Stone, 52–71. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Brown, Chris. 2007. “From Humanized War to Humanitarian Intervention: Carl Schmitt's Critique of the Just War Tradition.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 56–69. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cocker, Mark. 1998. Rivers of Blood, Rivers of Gold: Europe's Conflict with Indigenous Peoples. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Colas, AlejandroSaull, Richard (eds). 2005. The War on Terrorism and the American ‘Empire’ After the Cold War. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Constellations. 2004. An International Journal of Critical and Democratic Theory, with contributions by Martti Koskenniemi, Hauke Brunkhorst, Peter Stirk and William E. Scheuerman, 11(4).Google Scholar
Contamine, Philippe (ed.). 2000a. War and Competition between States. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Contamine, Philippe (ed.) 2000b. “The Growth of State Control: Practices of War, 1300–1800: Ransom and Booty.” In War and Competition between States, edited by P. Contamine, 163–193. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Benoist, Alain. 2007. “Global Terrorism and the State of Permanent Exception: the Significance of Carl Schmitt's Thought Today.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 73–96. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Diner, Dan. 2000a [1984]. “Knowledge of Expansion: On the Geopolitics of Karl Haushofer.” In Beyond the Conceivable: Studies on Germany, Nazism and the Holocaust, edited by D. Diner, 26–48. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diner, Dan 2000b [1989]. “Norms for Domination: Nazi Legal Concepts for World Order.” In Beyond the Conceivable: Studies on Germany, Nazism and the Holocaust, edited by D. Diner, 49–77. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downing, Brian M. 1992. The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Drolet, Jean-François. 2010. “A Liberalism Betrayed? American Neoconservatism and the Theory of International Relations.” Journal of Political Ideologies 15(2):89–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyzenhaus, David. 1999. Legality and Legitimacy: Carl Schmitt, Hans Kelsen and Herman Heller in Weimar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ertman, Thomas. 1997. Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval And Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisch, Jörg. 1984. Die europäische Expansion und das Völkerrecht: die Auseinandersetzungen um den Status der überseeischen Gebiete vom 15. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.Google Scholar
Gerstenberger, Heide. 2007 [1990]. Impersonal Power: History and Theory of the Bourgeois State. Leiden and Boston: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorski, Philip. 2000. “Historicizing the Secularization Debate: Church, State, and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700.” American Sociological Review 65(1):138–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gowan, Peter. 2004. “American Lebensraum.” New Left Review II(30):155–164.Google Scholar
Grewe, Wilhelm. 2000. The Epochs of International Law. New York: Walter de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, Leo. 1948. “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948.” The American Journal of International Law 42:20–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gruchmann, Lothar. 1962. Nationalsozialistische Großraumordnung: Die Konstruktion einer “Deutschen Monroe-Doktrin”. Stuttgart: DVA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habermas, Juergen. 1989. “The Horrors of Autonomy: Carl Schmitt in English.” In The New Conservatism: Cultural Criticisms and the Historians’ Debate, edited by J. Habermas, 128–139. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Habermas, Juergen 2006. The Divided West. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Haggenmacher, Peter. 2001. “Présentation.” In Le Nomos de la Terre dans le Droit des Gens du Jus Publicum Europaeum, C. Schmitt, 1–43. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Hardt, MichaelNegri, Antonio. 2000. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Holmes, Stephen. 1993. The Anatomy of Antiliberalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hooker, William. 2009. Carl Schmitt's International Thought: Order and Orientation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huysmans, Jeff. 2008. “The Jargon of Exception – on Schmitt, Agamben and the Absence of Political Society.” International Political Sociology 2:165–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joerges, Christian. 2003. “Europe – a Groβraum? Shifting Conceptualisations of the Integration Project.” In Darker Legacies of Law in Europe: The Shadow of National Socialism and Fascism over Europe and its Legal Traditions, edited by C. Joerges and N. Singh Ghaleigh, 167–191. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Kelsen, Hans. 1967 [1934]. Pure Theory of Law. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kervégan, Jean-Francois. 1999. “Carl Schmitt and ‘World Unity’.” In The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, edited by C. Mouffe, 54–74. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Körner, Martin. 1995. “Expenditure.” In Economic Systems and State Finance, edited by R. Bonney, 393–422. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Koskenniemi, Martti. 2001. The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law, 1870–1960. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koskenniemi, Martti 2002. “Review of Grewe's The Epochs of International Law.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51:746–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koskenniemi, Martti 2004. “International Law as Political Theology: How to Read Nomos der Erde?” Constellations 11(4):492–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroener, Bernhard. 2000. “The Modern State and Military Society in the Eighteenth Century.” In War and Competition between States, edited by P. Contamine, 195–220. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunisch, Johannes. 1987. “La guerre – c'est moi! Zum Problem der Staatenkonflikte im Zeitalter des Absolutismus.” Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 14(1/4):407–438.Google Scholar
Lindegren, Jan. 2000. “Men, Money and Means.” In War and Competition between States, edited by P. Contamine, 129–162. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilla, Mark. 2001. The Reckless Mind: Intellectuals in Politics. New York: New York Review Books.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl. 1973 [1939]. Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Mehring, Reinhard. 2009. Carl Schmitt: Aufstieg und Fall – Eine Biographie. Munich: Beck.Google Scholar
Miller, Stephen. 2008. State and Society in Eighteenth-Century France: A Study of Political Power and Social Revolution in Languedoc. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Mouffe, Chantal (ed.). 1999. The Challenge of Carl Schmitt. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Mouffe, Chantal (ed.) 2005. On the Political. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mouffe, Chantal (ed.) 2007. “Carl Schmitt's Warning on the Dangers of a Unipolar World.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 147–153. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Müller, Jan-Werner. 2003. A Dangerous Mind: Carl Schmitt in Post-war European Thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Patrick. 2002. “Fiscal Exceptionalism: Great Britain and its European Rivals from Civil War to Triumph at Trafalgar and Waterloo.” In The Political Economy of British Historical Experience: 1688–1914, edited by D. Winch and P. O'Brien, 245–265. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
O'Brien, PatrickHunt, Philip A.. 1999. “England, 1485–1815.” In The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe, c.1200–1815, edited by R. Bonney, 53–100. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odysseos, Louiza. 2007. “Crossing the Line? Carl Schmitt on the Spaceless Universalism of Cosmopolitanism and the War on Terror.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 124–143. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odysseos, LouizaPetito, Fabio (eds). 2006. The International Theory of Carl Schmitt, Special Section.” Leiden Journal of International Law 19(1): 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odysseos, LouizaPetito, Fabio (eds) 2007. “Introduction: the International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 1–17. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odysseos, LouizaPetito, Fabio 2009. “Carl Schmitt.” In Critical Theorists and International Relations, edited by J. Edkins and N. Vaughan-Williams, 305–316. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ojakangas, Mika. 2006. A Philosophy of Concrete Life: Carl Schmitt and the Political Thought of Late Modernity. Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Opitz, Reinhard. (ed.) 1977. Europastrategien des Deutschen Kapitals: 1900–1945. Cologne: Pahl-Rugenstein.Google Scholar
Parker, Geoffrey. 1988. The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Parker, David. 1996. Class and State in Ancien Régime France: The Road to Modernity? London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Petito, Fabio. 2007. “Against World-Unity: Carl Schmitt and the Western-Centric and Liberal Global Order.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 166–184. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Potter, Mark. 2003. “War Finance and Absolutist State Development in Early Modern Europe: an Examination of French Venality in the Seventeenth Century.” Journal of Early Modern History 7(1–2):120–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prados de la Escosura, Leandro (ed.) 2004. Exceptionalism and Industrialisation: Britain and Its European Rivals, 1688–1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prozorov, Sergei. 2009. “Generic Universalism in World Politics: Beyond International Anarchy and the World State.” International Theory 1(2):215–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rasch, William. 2004. Sovereignty and its Discontents: On the Primacy of Conflict and the Structure of the Political. London: Birkbeck Law Press.Google Scholar
Repgen, Konrad. 1985. “Kriegslegitimationen in Alteuropa: Entwurf einer historischen Typologie.” Historische Zeitschrift 242:27–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rüthers, Bernd. 1988. Entartetes Recht: Rechtslehren und Kronjuristen im Dritten Reich. Munich: C.H. Beck.Google Scholar
Rüthers, Bernd 1990. Carl Schmitt im Dritten Reich: Wissenschaft als Zeitgeist-Verstärkung? 2d ed., München: C.H. Beck.Google Scholar
Scheuerman, William. 1994. Between the Norm and the Exception: The Frankfurt School and the Rule of Law. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Scheuerman, William 1999. Carl Schmitt: The End of Law. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Scheuerman, William 2004. “International Law as Historical Myth.” Constellations 11(4):537–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheuerman, William 2008. “Carl Schmitt and Hans Morgenthau: Realism and Beyond.” In Realism Reconsidered: The Legacy of Hans Morgenthau in International Relations, edited by M.C. Williams, 62–91. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl. 1985a [1923]. The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1985b [1922]. Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1988a [1940]. Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar-Genf-Versailles, 1923–1939, 2d ed., Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1988b [1939]. “Großraum gegen Universalismus.” In Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar-Genf-Versailles, 1923–1939, edited by C. Schmitt, 335–343. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1988c [1932]. “Völkerrechtliche Formen des modernen Imperialismus.” In Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar-Genf-Versailles, 1923–1939, edited by C. Schmitt, 184–203. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1993 [1929]. “The Age of Neutralizations and Depoliticizations.” Telos 96:130–142.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1995a [1926]. “Absolutismus.” In Schmitt, Staat, Großraum, Nomos: Arbeiten aus den Jahren 1916–1969, edited by G. Maschke, 95–101. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1995b [1940]. “Raum und Großraum im Völkerrecht.” In Staat, Großraum, Nomos: Arbeiten aus den Jahren 1916–1969, edited by G. Maschke, 234–268. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1995c [1939/1941, 4th ed.]. “Völkerrechtliche Großraumordnung mit Interventionsverbot für raumfremde Mächte.” In Schmitt, Staat, Großraum, Nomos: Arbeiten aus den Jahren 1916–1969, edited by G. Maschke, 269–371. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1995d. Staat, Großraum, Nomos: Arbeiten aus den Jahren 1916–1969, edited by G. Maschke, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1996 [1932]. The Concept of the Political. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 1997 [1954/1942]. Land and Sea. Washington, DC: Plutarch Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 2003 [1950]. The Nomos of the Earth in the Ius Publicum Europaeum. New York: Telos Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 2004a [1963]. “Theory of the Partisan: Intermediate Commentary on the Concept of the Political.” Telos 127:11–78.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 2004b [1934]. On the Three Types of Juristic Thought. New York: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 2005a. Frieden oder Pazifismus: Arbeiten zum Völkerrecht und zur Internationalen Politik, 1924–1978, edited by G. Maschke. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Carl 2005b [1926]. “Die Kernfrage des Völkerbundes.” In C. Schmitt, Frieden oder Pazifismus: Arbeiten zum Völkerrecht und zur Internationalen Politik, 1924–1978, edited by G. Maschke, 1–25. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmoeckel, Mathias. 1994. Die Großraumtheorie: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Völkerrechtes im Dritten Reich, insbesondere der Kriegszeit. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schroeder, Paul W. 1994. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, Kam. 2008. Carl Schmitt and the Intensification of Politics. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Slomp, Gabriella. 2006. “Carl Schmitt's Five Arguments Against the Idea of Just War.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 19(3):435–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slomp, Gabriella 2009. Carl Schmitt and the Politics of Hostility, Violence and Terror. London: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Neil. 2004. American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
South Atlantic Quarterly. 2005. World Orders: Confronting Carl Schmitt's The Nomos of the Earth, edited by William Rasch 104(2):177–388.Google Scholar
Stirk, Peter. 1999. “Carl Schmitt's Völkerrechtliche Großraumordnung.” History of Political Thought 20:357–374.Google Scholar
Stirk, Peter 2005. Carl Schmitt, Crown Jurist of the Third Reich: On Pre-emptive War, Military Occupation and World Empire. Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press.Google Scholar
Teschke, Benno. 1998. “Geopolitical Relations in the European Middle Ages: History and Theory.” International Organization 52(2):325–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teschke, Benno 2002. “Theorising the Westphalian System of States: International Relations from Absolutism to Capitalism.” European Journal of International Relations 8(1):5–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teschke, Benno 2003. The Myth of 1648: Class, Geopolitics and the Making of Modern International Relations. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Teschke, Benno 2006. “Debating “The Myth of 1648”: State-Formation, the Inter-State System and the Rise of Capitalism – a Rejoinder.” International Politics 43(5):531–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, Charles (ed.). 1975. The Formation of National States in Western Europe. Princeton: University of Princeton Press.Google Scholar
Tooze, Adam. 2006. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. 1997. The German Empire, 1871–1918. Oxford: Berg Press.Google Scholar
Werner, Wouter. 2010. “The Changing Face of Enmity: Carl Schmitt's International Theory and the Evolution of the Legal Concept of War.” International Theory 2(3):351–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Ellen. 1983. “The State and Popular Sovereignty in French Political Thought: a Genealogy of Rousseau's ‘General Will’.” History of Political Thought 4(2):281–315.Google Scholar
Wood, Ellen 1991. The Pristine Culture of Capitalism: A Historical Essay on Old Regimes And Modern States. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Wolf, Eric. 1982. Europe and the People without History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wright, Quincy. 1964. A Study of War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Žižek, Slavoj. 1999. “Carl Schmitt in the Age of Post-Politics.” In The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, edited by C. Mouffe, 18–37. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Zolo, Danilo. 2002. Invoking Humanity: War, Law and Global Order. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Zolo, Danilo 2007. “The Re-emerging Notion of Empire and the Influence of Carl Schmitt's Thought’.” In The International Political Thought of Carl Schmitt: Terror, Liberal War and the Crisis of Global Order, edited by L. Odysseos and F. Petito, 154–165. London: Routledge.Google Scholar