Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T12:25:47.922Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Becoming with Toxicity: Chemical Epigenetics as “Racializing and Sexualizing Assemblage”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2022

Melina Packer Open the ORCID record for Melina Packer [Opens in a new window]
Melina Packer*
Affiliation:
Department of Gender and Sexuality Studies, University of California-Riverside, CHASS Interdisciplinary Building 2033, Riverside, CA92521, USA
*
Corresponding author. [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article I think through Black feminism and queer theory to critically analyze toxicology. I focus on toxicology's conception of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), a class of toxicants that can cause epigenetic changes leading to inheritable health issues. I suggest that Black feminist interventions are particularly necessary for the study of toxicants because multiply marginalized populations are disproportionately more exposed to EDCs. The structural preconditions that generate this uneven, racialized, and sexualized toxic body-burden threaten to turn cultural constructions of race and sex (epistemologies) into biological realities (ontologies). My discursive analysis of key scientific texts on toxicology, EDCs, and epigenetics underscores how Eurocentric biases and eugenic logics permeate and co-constitute biochemical matter. I further argue that these texts’ un/articulated norms regarding the human, sexual behavior, and evolutionary fitness undermine the usefulness of toxicological assessments for environmental justice. I close by urging scientist scholar-activists to reconceive the study of toxicants. A Black feminist approach to toxicity, I suggest, would not only situate chemical exposures in their sociopolitical contexts, but also radically revision what it means to be human.

Type
Article
Information
Hypatia , Volume 37 , Issue 1 , Winter 2022 , pp. 2 - 26
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Hypatia, a Nonprofit Corporation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agard-Jones, Vanessa. 2013. Bodies in the system. Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism 17 (3 (42)): 182–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agard-Jones, Vanessa. 2014. Spray. Somatosphere. http://somatosphere.net/2014/05/spray.html.Google Scholar
Agard-Jones, Vanessa. 2015. Case #1: Vanessa Agard-Jones, “Chlordécone.” The manufacturing of rights, Beirut, Lebanon. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvqVkR4Iuqs.Google Scholar
Ah-King, Malin, and Hayward, Eva. 2013. Toxic sexes: Perverting pollution and queering hormone disruption. O-Zone: A Journal of Object Oriented Studies 1: 1–12.Google Scholar
Alaimo, Stacy. 2010. Bodily natures: Science, environment, and the material self. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Alaimo, Stacy, and Hekman, Susan J., ed. 2008. Material feminisms. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Barker, D. J. P. 2007. The origins of the developmental origins theory. Journal of Internal Medicine 261 (5): 412–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellet, Marina Maria, and Sassone-Corsi, Paolo. 2010. Mammalian circadian clock and metabolism: The epigenetic link. Journal of Cell Science 123 (22): 3837–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjamin, Ruha. 2016a. Interrogating equity: A disability justice approach to genetic engineering. Issues in Science and Technology 32: 50–54.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Ruha. 2016b. Innovating inequity: If race is a technology, postracialism is the genius bar. Ethnic and Racial Studies 39 (13): 2227–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, Jane. 2010. Vibrant matter: A political ecology of things. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Birke, Lynda I. A. 2000. Feminism and the biological body. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Boudia, Soraya. 2014. Managing scientific and political uncertainty: Environmental risk assessment in an historical perspective. In Powerless science? Science and politics in a toxic world, ed. Boudia, Soraya and Jas, Nathalie. New York: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Briggs, Laura. 2003. Reproducing empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Carson, Rachel. 1962. Silent spring. New York: Fawcett Crest.Google Scholar
Césaire, Aimé. 1950. Discourse on colonialism. Trans. Joan Pinkham. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Mel Y. 2011. Toxic animacies, inanimate affections. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 17 (2): 265–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chun, Wendy Hui Kyong. 2009. Introduction: Race and/as technology; or, how to do things to race. Camera Obscura: Feminism, Culture, and Media Studies 24 (1 (70)): 7–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cipolla, Cyd, Gupta, Kristina, and Rubin, David A., ed. 2017. Queer feminist science studies: A reader. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Clare, Stephanie. 2019. Reimagining biological relatedness: Epigenetics and queer kin. Signs 45 (1): 51–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colborn, Theo, and Clement, Coralie. 1992. Chemically-induced alterations in sexual and functional development: The wildlife/human connection. Princeton: Princeton Scientific Publishing.Google Scholar
Colborn, Theo, Dumanoski, Dianne, and Myers, John Peterson. 1996. Our stolen future: Are we threatening our fertility, intelligence, and survival?: A scientific detective story. New York: Dutton.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2000. Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Combahee River Collective. 1977. A Black feminist statement. Boston, Mass. https://combaheerivercollective.weebly.com/the-combahee-river-collective-statement.html.Google Scholar
Conching, Andie Kealohi Sato, and Thayer, Zaneta. 2019. Biological pathways for historical trauma to affect health: A conceptual model focusing on epigenetic modifications. Social Science and Medicine 230 (June): 74–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989. Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum 1989 (1): 139–67.Google Scholar
Crews, David, and McLachlan, John A.. 2006. Epigenetics, evolution, endocrine disruption, health, and disease. Endocrinology 147 (6 Suppl): S4–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, Angela Y. 1983. Women, race and class. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Davis, Frederick Rowe. 2014. Banned: A history of pesticides and the science of toxicology. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Chiro, Giovanna. 2010. Polluted politics? Confronting toxic discourse, sex panic, and eco-normativity. In Queer ecologies: Sex, nature, politics, desire, ed. Mortimer-Sandilands, Catriona and Erickson, Bruce. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Diamanti-Kandarakis, Evanthia, Bourguignon, Jean-Pierre, Giudice, Linda C., Hauser, Russ, Prins, Gail S., Soto, Ana M., Thomas Zoeller, R., and Gore, Andrea C.. 2009. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: An endocrine society scientific statement. Endocrine Reviews 30 (4): 293–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doody Enterprises, Inc. 2018. Doody's Core Titles. 2018. https://www.doody.com/corp/ProductsServices/DoodysCoreTitles/tabid/171/Default.aspx.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. 1903. The souls of black folk. Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/408Google Scholar
Endocrine Disruptors Action Group. 2017. Endocrine Disruptors Action Group. https://endocrinedisruptorsaction.org/.Google Scholar
The Eugenics Archives. 2015. Intellectual disability and IQ testing. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. http://eugenicsarchive.ca/discover/tree/535eecae7095aa0000000239.Google Scholar
Fanon, Frantz. 1967. Black skin, white masks. New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Faustman, Elaine M. 2019. Risk assessment. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar
Faustman, Elaine M., and Omenn, Gilbert S.. 2013. Risk assessment. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., Casarett, Louis J, and Doull, John, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, Medical.Google Scholar
Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the body: Gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2005. The bare bones of sex: Part 1—sex and gender. Signs 30 (2): 1491–1527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2008. The bare bones of race. Social Studies of Science 38 (5): 657–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, Paul M. D., and Earl Gray, L. Jr. 2013. Toxic responses of the reproductive system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., Casarett, Louis J., and Doull, John, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, Medical.Google Scholar
Foster, Paul M. D., and Earl Gray, L. Jr. 2019. Toxic responses of the reproductive system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, Medical.Google Scholar
Gaard, Greta. 1997. Toward a queer ecofeminism. Hypatia 12 (1): 114–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, Roxane. 2020. The legacy of Audre Lorde. The Paris Review, September 17.Google Scholar
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson. 2007. Golden gulag: Prisons, surplus, crisis, and opposition in globalizing California. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gould, Stephen Jay. 2008. The mismeasure of man. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Guthman, Julie. 2014. Doing justice to bodies? Reflections on food justice, race, and biology. Antipode 46 (5): 1153–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haraway, Donna J. 1985. A manifesto for cyborgs: Science, technology, and socialist feminism in the 1980s. Socialist Review 80, 15 (2): 65–107.Google Scholar
Haraway, Donna J. 2008. When species meet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Harrison, Jill Lindsey. 2011. Pesticide drift and the pursuit of environmental justice. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, Tyrone B., Collins, Atif, Lee, Melissa, Mendoza, Magdelena, Noriega, Nigel, Ali Stuart, A., and Vonk, Aaron. 2002. Hermaphroditic, demasculinized frogs after exposure to the herbicide atrazine at low ecologically relevant doses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (8): 5476–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, Elizabeth. 2018. Environmental reproductive justice: Intersections in an American Indian community impacted by environmental contamination. Environmental Sociology 4 (1): 8–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyer, Patricia B., and Flaws, Jodi A.. 2013. Toxic responses of the endocrine system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., Casarett, Louis J., and Doull, John, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, Medical.Google Scholar
Hoyer, Patricia B., and Flaws, Jodi A.. 2019. Toxic responses of the endocrine system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar
James-Todd, Tamarra M., Chiu, Yu-Han, and Zota, Ami R.. 2016. Racial/ethnic disparities in environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals and women's reproductive health outcomes: Epidemiological examples across the life course. Current Epidemiology Reports 3 (2): 161–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan-Young, Rebecca M. 2011. Brain storm: The flaws in the science of sex differences. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Karkazis, Katrina. 2019. The misuses of “biological sex.” The Lancet 394 (10212): 1898–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karkazis, Katrina, and Jordan-Young, Rebecca. 2020. Sensing race as a ghost variable in science, technology, and medicine. Science, Technology, and Human Values 45 (5): 763–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karkazis, Katrina, Jordan-Young, Rebecca, Davis, Georgiann, and Camporesi, Silvia. 2012. Out of bounds? A critique of the new policies on hyperandrogenism in elite female athletes. American Journal of Bioethics 12 (7): 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keel, Terence. 2018. Divine variations: How Christian thought became racial science. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Keller, Evelyn Fox. 2002. The century of the gene. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Klaassen, Curtis D., Louis J., Casarett, and John, Doull. 2013. Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar
Klaassen, Curtis D., ed. 2019. Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar
Klinghoffer, David. 2010. Who or what plays the music of DNA? Evolution News and Science Today, November 14.Google Scholar
Klinghoffer, David. 2012. Epigenetics and the “piano” metaphor. Evolution News. January 4.Google Scholar
Kowal, Emma, and Warin, Megan. 2018. Anthropology, indigeneity, and the epigenome. American Anthropologist 120 (4): 822–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krimsky, Sheldon. 2001. An epistemological inquiry into the endocrine disruptor thesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 948 (December): 130–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, Max, and Packer, Melina. 2019. How gendered language leads scientists astray. Washington Post, June 10. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/06/10/how-gendered-language-leads-scientists-astray/.Google Scholar
Lambert, Max R., Smylie, Meredith S., Roman, Amber J., Kealoha Freidenburg, L., and Skelly, David K.. 2018. Sexual and somatic development of wood frog tadpoles along a thermal gradient. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology 329 (2): 72–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, Max R., Tran, Tien, Kilian, Andrzej, Ezaz, Tariq, and Skelly, David K.. 2019. Molecular evidence for sex reversal in wild populations of green frogs (Rana Clamitans). PeerJ 7 (February): e6449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landecker, Hannah. 2011. Food as exposure: Nutritional epigenetics and the new metabolism. BioSocieties 6 (2): 167–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lappé, Martine, Hein, Robbin Jeffries, and Landecker, Hannah. 2019. Environmental politics of reproduction. Annual Review of Anthropology 48 (1): 133–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leary, Joy DeGruy. 2005. Post traumatic slave syndrome: America's legacy of enduring injury and healing. Milwaukie, Ore.: Uptone Press.Google Scholar
Lehman-McKeeman, Lois D. 2019. Mechanisms of toxicity. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.Google Scholar
Liboiron, Max, Tironi, Manuel, and Calvillo, Nerea. 2018. Toxic politics: Acting in a permanently polluted world. Social Studies of Science 48 (3): 331–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorde, Audre. 1984. The master's tools will never dismantle the master's house. In Sister outsider: Essays and speeches. Berkeley: Crossing Press.Google Scholar
Lugones, María. 2016. The coloniality of gender. In The Palgrave handbook of gender and development: Critical engagements in feminist theory and practice, ed. Harcourt, Wendy. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.Google Scholar
Luna, Zakiya, and Luker, Kristin. 2013. Reproductive justice. Annual Review of Law and Social Science 9 (1): 327–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, Catharine A. 1987. Difference and dominance: On sex discrimination. In Feminism unmodified. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Malabou, Catherine. 2016. One life only: Biological resistance, political resistance. Trans. Carolyn Shread. Critical Inquiry 42 (3): 429–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansfield, Becky, and Guthman, Julie. 2014. Epigenetic life: Biological plasticity, abnormality, and new configurations of race and reproduction. Cultural Geographies, November 3, 1474474014555659. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474474014555659.Google Scholar
Markowitz, Sally. 2001. Pelvic politics: Sexual dimorphism and racial difference. Signs 26 (2): 389–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Emily. 1991. The egg and the sperm: How science has constructed a romance based on stereotypical male-female roles. Signs 16 (3): 485–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClintock, Anne. 1995. Imperial leather: Race, gender, and sexuality in the colonial contest. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
McKittrick, Katherine. 2015a. Axis, bold as love: On Sylvia Wynter, Jimi Hendrix, and the promise of science. In Sylvia Wynter: On being human as praxis, ed. McKittrick, Katherine. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
McKittrick, Katherine, ed. 2015b. Sylvia Wynter: On being human as praxis. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Mignolo, Walter D. 2015. Sylvia Wynter: What does it mean to be human? In Sylvia Wynter: On being human as praxis, ed. McKittrick, Katherine. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Monk, Julia D., Giglio, Erin, Kamath, Ambika, Lambert, Max R., and McDonough, Caitlin E.. 2019. An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals. Nature Ecology and Evolution 3: 1622–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mortimer-Sandilands, Catriona, and Erickson, Bruce, ed. 2010. Queer ecologies: Sex, nature, politics, desire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Müller, Ruth, Hanson, Clare, Hanson, Mark, Penkler, Michael, Samaras, Georgia, Chiapperino, Luca, Dupré, John, et al. 2017. The biosocial genome? EMBO Reports 18 (10): 1677–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, Michelle. 2006. Sick building syndrome and the problem of uncertainty: Environmental politics, technoscience, and women workers. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Michelle. 2013. Distributed reproduction, chemical violence, and latency. S&F Online 11 (3).Google Scholar
Murphy, Michelle. 2017. Alterlife and decolonial chemical relations. Cultural Anthropology 32 (4): 494–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, Linda. 2008. Purity and danger: Historical reflections on the regulation of environmental pollutants. Environmental History 13 (4): 651–58.Google Scholar
National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2020. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD)–An NCATS Program. https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/1467/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia.Google Scholar
Nelson, Alondra. 2016. The social life of DNA. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Nixon, Rob. 2013. Slow violence and the environmentalism of the poor. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Oudshoorn, Nelly. 1994. Beyond the natural body: An archaeology of sex hormones. New York and London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Packer, Melina. 2020. Finding the man in the glyphosate. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Patil, Vrushali. 2018. The heterosexual matrix as imperial effect. Sociological Theory 36 (1): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penkler, M., Hanson, M., Biesma, R., and Müller, R.. 2019. DOHaD in science and society: Emergent opportunities and novel responsibilities. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease 10 (3): 268–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollock, Anne. 2016. Queering endocrine disruption. In Object-oriented feminism, ed. Behar, Katherine. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Ranjit, N., Siefert, K., and Padmanabhan, V.. 2010. Bisphenol-A and disparities in birth outcomes: A review and directions for future research. Journal of Perinatology 30 (1): 2–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reardon, Jenny. 2005. Race to the finish: Identity and governance in an age of genomics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Richardson, Sarah S. 2013. Sex itself: The search for male and female in the human genome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Dorothy E. 1999. Killing the black body: Race, reproduction, and the meaning of liberty. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Rosengarten, Marsha. 2016. Experimental subjects kick back: A provocation for an alternative causality in biomedical research and bioethics. In Mattering: Feminism, science, and materialism, ed. Pitts-Taylor, Victoria. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Roughgarden, Joan. 2013. Evolution's rainbow: Diversity, gender, and sexuality in nature and people. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruiz, Daniel, Becerra, Marisol, Jagai, Jyotsna S., Ard, Kerry, and Sargis, Robert M.. 2017. Disparities in environmental exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and diabetes risk in vulnerable populations. Diabetes Care, October, dc162765.Google Scholar
Sagiv, Sharon K., Bruno, Jennifer L., Baker, Joseph M., Palzes, Vanessa, Kogut, Katherine, Rauch, Stephen, Gunier, Robert, Mora, Ana M., Reiss, Allan L., and Eskenazi, Brenda. 2019. Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and functional neuroimaging in adolescents living in proximity to pesticide application. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116 (37): 18347–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sapolsky, Robert M. 1998. The trouble with testosterone: And other essays on the biology of the human predicament. New York: Touchstone.Google Scholar
Sellers, Christopher C. 1997. Hazards of the job: From industrial disease to environmental health science. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Shakespeare, Tom. 2015. Gene editing: Heed disability views. Nature 527 (7579): 446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shotwell, Alexis. 2016. Against purity: Living ethically in compromised times. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
SisterSong. n.d. Reproductive justice. Women of Color Reproductive Justice Collective. https://www.sistersong.net/reproductive-justice.Google Scholar
Stepan, Nancy Leys. 1986. Race and gender: The role of analogy in science. Isis 77 (2): 261–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subramaniam, Banu. 2014. Ghost stories for Darwin: The science of variation and the politics of diversity. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
TallBear, Kimberly. 2011. Why interspecies thinking needs Indigenous standpoints. Fieldsights, November 18. https://culanth.org/fieldsights/why-interspecies-thinking-needs-indigenous-standpoints.Google Scholar
Taylor, Dorceta E. 2014. Toxic communities: Environmental racism, industrial pollution, and residential mobility. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Carol. 2007. Sociologies of disability and illness: Contested ideas in disability studies and medical sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, John A. 1996. Toxic responses of the reproductive system. In Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons, ed. Klaassen, Curtis D., 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Health Professions Division.Google Scholar
Tolwinski, Kasia. 2013. A new genetics or an epiphenomenon? Variations in the discourse of epigenetics researchers. New Genetics and Society 32 (4): 366–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tompkins, Kyla Wazana. 2016. On the limits and promise of new materialist philosophy. Lateral 5 (1). https://csalateral.org/issue/5-1/forum-alt-humanities-new-materialist-philosophy-tompkins/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tousignant, Noémi. 2018. Edges of exposure: Toxicology and the problem of capacity in postcolonial Senegal. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US National Library of Medicine (USNLM). 2020a. Fragile X Syndrome. Genetics Home Reference. https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/fragile-x-syndrome.Google Scholar
US National Library of Medicine (USNLM). 2020b. Rett Syndrome. Genetics Home Reference. https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/rett-syndrome.Google Scholar
Visperas, Cristina, Brown, Kimberly Juanita, and Sexton, Jared, eds. 2016. Nothing/more: Black studies and feminist technoscience. Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience 2 (2).Google Scholar
Vogel, Sarah A. 2008. From “the dose makes the poison” to “the timing makes the poison”: Conceptualizing risk in the synthetic age. Environmental History 13 (4): 667–73.Google Scholar
Wadhwa, Pathik D., Buss, Claudia, Entringer, Sonja, and Swanson, James M.. 2009. Developmental origins of health and disease: Brief history of the approach and current focus on epigenetic mechanisms. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine 27 (5): 358–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, Rebecca E., and Goodman, Jay I.. 2002. Epigenetics and DNA methylation come of age in toxicology. Toxicological Sciences: An Official Journal of the Society of Toxicology 67 (1): 11–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weasel, Lisa H. 2016. Embodying intersectionality: The promise (and peril) of epigenetics for feminist science studies. In Mattering: Feminism, science, and materialism, ed. Pitts-Taylor, Victoria. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Weheliye, Alexander G. 2014. Habeas viscus: Racializing assemblages, biopolitics, and black feminist theories of the human. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Willey, Angela. 2016. A world of materialisms: Postcolonial feminist science studies and the new natural. Science, Technology, and Human Values 41 (6): 991–1014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynter, Sylvia. 2003. Unsettling the coloniality of being/power/truth/freedom: Towards the human, after man, its overrepresentation—An argument. CR: The New Centennial Review 3 (3): 257–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynter, Sylvia. 2006. On how we mistook the map for the territory and re-imprisoned ourselves in our unbearable wrongness of being, of désêtre: Black studies toward the human project. In Not only the master's tools: African-American studies in theory and practice, ed. Gordon, Lewis R. and Gordon, Jane Anna. Boulder, Colo.: Paradigm.Google Scholar
Wynter, Sylvia, and McKittrick, Katherine. 2015. Unparalleled catastrophe for our species? Or, to give humanness a different future: Conversations. In Sylvia Wynter: On being human as praxis, ed. McKittrick, Katherine. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Zota, Ami R., and Shamasunder, Bhavna. 2017. The environmental injustice of beauty: Framing chemical exposures from beauty products as a health disparities concern. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 217 (4): 418.e1–418.e6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed