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Immigration Restrictions and International Education: Early Tensions in the Pacific Northwest, 1890s-1910s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 April 2018

Krystyn R. Moon
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Abstract

This essay explores the experiences and debates surrounding preparatory schools for Chinese students in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century. These institutions attempted to expand educational opportunities for poorer Chinese students who might otherwise not have had a chance to go to school; however, most of these children also had families in the United States, who supported their children's education but also needed their help to sustain their families. American laws banned most forms of Chinese immigration, and families had to carefully maneuver through federal policies to enter the country as students, often turning to European Americans-who were invested in expanding U.S. involvement in China-for support. Because of anti-Chinese sentiments, consular and immigration authorities questioned these programs, making them difficult to sustain. Ultimately, the interactions between immigration and consular officials, education boosters, and Chinese students were integral to the development of preparatory schools for other international students in the twentieth century.

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Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 58 , Issue 2 , May 2018 , pp. 261 - 294
Copyright
Copyright © History of Education Society 2018 

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References

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7 In this essay, “preparatory schools” are private institutions either established or expanded to include special training for Chinese students between the ages of 11 and 20. They are similar to immersive language-training programs today. This idea is distinct from the other usage of preparatory or “prep” schools, which are private (usually elite and expensive) high schools that train students for college. In 1913, the commissioner-general in Seattle called these programs “Chinese preparatory schools.” Ellis DeBruler to William B. Wilson, memo, April 30, 1913, file 53, 620–75, box 1831, entry 9, RG 85, Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter Immigration and Naturalization Service Files).

8 Although beyond the periodization of this study, preparatory programs geared toward Chinese students in “developed countries,” including the US, have expanded significantly in the early twenty-first century. These programs, although viewed with some ambivalence, continue to be seen as an opportunity for Chinese students and their families. See Fong, Vanessa, Paradise Redefined: Transnational Chinese Students and the Quest for Flexible Citizenship in the Developed World (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

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44 Myrl S. Myers to Chandler Hale, May 2, 1910, file 52, 753-101, box 803, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files; and Caroline H. Ober to Thomas F. Kane, May 27, 1909, folder 8, box 130, Office of the President Records.

45 Ida K. Greenlee to Henry M. White, March 20, 1914, file 52, 753-12, box 800, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

46 Mark A. Matthews to William Bauchop Wilson, Aug. 21, 1913, file 52, 753-13B, box 801, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

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48 A few years later, Kane wrote immigration authorities about Greenlee's activities and accused her of “subterfuge.” Thomas F. Kane to Daniel J. Keefe, April 9, 1913, file 52, 753-13A, box 801, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files; and Thomas F. Kane to John A. Rea, Oct. 5, 1910, folder 1, box 119, Office of the President Records.

49 Wong Sam Yuen and Wong Yen Yuen to Caroline H. Ober, Aug. 12, 1910, folder 10, box 1, Ober Papers.

50 Louis Chun Lam, to Caroline H. Ober, Sept. 23, 1910, folder 10, box 1, Ober Papers.

51 Lee Foo to Caroline H. Ober, Aug. 13, 1910, folder 10, box 1, Ober Papers.

52 George E. Anderson to Philander C. Knox, Dec. 6, 1911, file 52, 753-13, box 800, RG 85, entry 9, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

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57 Lauritz Lorenzen to Samuel Backus, June 24, 1912, file 52, 753-13, box 800, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

58 Statement of Miss Ida K. Greenlee, June 18, 1912, file 52, 753-13, box 800, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

59 Statement of Miss Ida K. Greenlee.

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63 James E. Lynch, George W. Merritt, and Otto F. Schiller to San Francisco Chamber of Commerce, July 15, 1912, file 52, 753-13, box 800, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

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69 Evelyn M. Burlingame to M. M. Matthews, Nov. 4, 1912, file 53, 440-48/48A, box 1521, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

70 M. A. Matthews to Evelyn M. Burlingame, Nov. 26, 1912, file 53, 440-48/48A, box 1521, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

71 There is no information on whether Greenlee also recruited students from Japan. W. L. Allen to Evelyn M. Burlingame, Dec. 3, 1912; Evelyn M. Burlingame to M. A. Matthews, Dec. 3, 1912; and M. A. Matthews to Evelyn M. Burlingame, Dec. 7, 1912, file 53, 440-48/48A, box 1521, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

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75 M. A. Matthews to William Bauchop Wilson, July 29, 1913, file 53, 590-43-44A, box 1784, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

76 Statement of Miss Ida K Greenlee, March 26, 1913, file 53, 590-43-44-A, box 1784, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

77 Ida K. Greenlee, Certificate 59850, Aug. 9, 1915, Consular Registration Certificates, compiled 1907–1918, box 4918, vol. 122, General Records of the Department of State, 1763–2002, RG 59, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC.

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79 Benjamin S. Cable to Miles Poindexter, Feb. 14, 1912, folder 10, box 134, Special Collections, Miles Poindexter Papers, University of Washington, Seattle, WA (hereafter Poindexter Papers).

80 Miles Poindexter to Claude E. Stevens, Dec. 11, 1911, folder 10, box 134, Poindexter Papers.

81 Claude E. Stevens to Miles Poindexter, telegram, Feb., 12, 1912, folder 10, box 134, Poindexter Papers.

82 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Henry A. Monroe,” Industrial Relations, 6177.

83 J.H. Davis to Wesley L. Jones, Feb. 13, 1912, Wesley L. Jones Papers, folder 11, box 125, Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

84 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Claude E. Stevens,” Industrial Relations, 6196.

85 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Hervey S. Cowell,” Industrial Relations, 6003–6005.

86 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Hervey S. Cowell,” Industrial Relations, 6006.

87 Thomas C. M. Jamieson to Hervey S. Cowell, n.d., as cited in Commission on Industrial Relations,“Testimony of Hervey S. Cowell,” 6008.

88 Benjamin S. Cable to Miles Poindexter, March 5, 1912, folder 10, box 134, Poindexter Papers.

89 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Sarah E. Hing,” Industrial Relations, 6207–6212; and Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Moy J. Hing,” Industrial Relations, 6212–6220.

90 Commission on Industrial Relations, “Testimony of Hervey S. Cowell,” Industrial Relations, 6011–6014.

91 Educational Bureau of Kwang Tung to the Board of Regents of the University of Washington, July 29, 1912, folder 14, box 1, Ober Papers; and Thomas F. Kane to Caroline H. Ober, Sept. 6, 1912, folder 9, box 1, Ober Papers.

92 Educational Bureau of Kwang Tung to the Board of Regents of the University of Washington, July 29, 1912; and Caroline H. Ober to Thomas F. Kane, Aug. 28, 1912, folder 14, box 1, Ober Papers.

93 Caroline H. Ober to Thomas F. Kane, Aug. 28, 1912, folder 14, box 1, Ober Papers.

94 Ye, Seeking Modernity in China's Name, 9–11.

95 “Dr. W. K. Chung Visits America,” New York Observer, Sept. 7, 1911, 293; “China's Awakening,” National Humane Review 2, no. 3 (March 1914), 59Google Scholar; and Wang, Dong, Managing God's Higher Learning: U.S.-China Cultural Encounter and Canton Christian College (Lingnan University), 1888–1952 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2000)Google Scholar. In 1916, Chung spoke at the Seattle China Club, consisting mostly of European American merchants, about the relationship between education and international trade. Chang, Pacific Connections, 188–89.

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97 W. K. Chung to Thomas F. Kane, Oct. 16, 1912.

98 Caroline H. Ober to Thomas F. Kane, Aug. 28, 1912; and W. G. Parkes “Vashon College and Academy,” March 3, 1914, Office of the President Records, folder 8, box 130; University of Washington.

99 W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, Sept. 16, 1912; W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, Sept. 25, 1912, folder 15, box 130; Office of the President Records.

100 W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, Jan. 27, 1913, folder 8, box 130, Office of the President Records.

101 W.G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, Jan. 27, 1913.

102 W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, May 6, 1913, folder 8, box 130, Office of the President Records.

103 W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, May 6, 1913.

104 W. G. Parkes to Caroline H. Ober, May 6, 1913.

105 George E. St. John to Caroline H. Ober, n.d., folder 8, box 130, Office of the President Records.

106 F. D. Cheshire to Caroline H. Ober, April 23, 1913, folder 14, box 1, Ober Papers.

107 F. D. Cheshire to Caroline H. Ober, April 23, 1913.

108 David Paul, “Gigantic Conspiracy to Smuggle Chinese into U.S. Suspected,” Seattle Times, March 25, 1913, 1; “Thirty Chinese Still Barred Out Of Nation,” Seattle Times, March 23, 1913, 18; and Seattle Times, editorial, March 27, 1913, 6., folder 14, box 1, Ober Papers.

109 Thomas F. Kane to Ellis DeBruler, April 1913, file 52-753-13B, box 801, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

110 J. E. Campbell to William B. Wilson, May 19, 1913, includes undated resolution, file 52, 753-13B, box 801, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Files.

111 Caroline H. Ober to William Markham, Aug. 1, 1913, University of Washington Board of Regents Records, folder 24, box 4, Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

112 John H. Sargent to Anthony J. Caminetti, Sept. 9, 1915; Anthony J. Caminetti to John H. Sargent, Sept. 28, 1915, file 52, 753-12, box 800; and Alfred Hampton to John H. Clark, June 5, 1916, file 53, 590-43-44A, box 1784, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

113 John K. Davis, to William Jennings Bryan, Jan. 5, 1914, file 53, 620–65, box 1831; and Ellis DeBruler to William B. Wilson, memo, April 30, 1913, file 53, 620–75, box 1831, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

114 Caroline H. Ober to Board of Regents, Nov. 13, 1913; and Caroline H. Ober to William Markham, Aug. 1, 1913, folder 8, box 130, Office of the President Records.

115 John K. Davis to William Jennings Bryan, Jan. 5, 1914, file 53, 620–65, box 1831, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

116 F. D. Cheshire, to William Jennings Bryan, Jan. 14, 1915, file 53, 620–65, box 1831, entry 9, RG 85, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files.

117 Paul, “Gigantic Conspiracy to Smuggle Chinese into U.S. Suspected.”

118 Hsu, The Good Immigrants, 21–80.