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Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or “Other”?: Deconstructing the Relationship between Historians and Hispanic-American Educational History

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Victoria-María MacDonald
Victoria-María MacDonald*
Affiliation:
Florida State University
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Extract

The educational history of Hispanic Americans is not a “new” history. Hispanic peoples began exploration, settlement, and even schooling in North America in the sixteenth century. A more appropriate metaphor is to think of Hispanic educational history as a rich, unearthed site awaiting the work of archivists and researchers. There is no doubt that the large post-1965 immigration of Latinos to the United States renewed interest among scholars in the history of these peoples. Yet contemporary social, political, economic, and educational issues raise the troubling question of why Hispanic-American history has remained neglected for so long. This essay is a beginning towards understanding the relationship between historians and the educational history of Hispanic Americans during the last century. Specifically, this historiographical inquiry examines some barriers that have dissuaded scholars from exploring the history of Latino influences in North America, assesses current writings, and recommends new directions for scholars wishing to pursue inquiry into the field of Hispanic-American educational history.

Type
Historiographic Essay
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 41 , Issue 3 , Fall 2001 , pp. 365 - 413
Copyright
Copyright © 2001 by the History of Education Society 

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References

1 Terminology which historians have utilized for Hispanic Americans is not merely a question of syntax, but also a micro-history in itself as historians and Hispanics have negotiated how they will be represented and who will represent them. Each term has posed issues of political and ethnic identity often leaving the scholar, the U.S. Government and Hispanic Americans themselves dissatisfied. In this essay, I utilize the more inclusive terms “Latino,” and “Hispanic American,” although among some groups, particularly Mexican Americans, “Hispanic” connotes elitism. Many Mexican Americans prefer “Chicano/a,” a term developed during the Mexican American Civil Rights era. Others, who identify less with the radical elements of Chicanismo, prefer “Latino/a.” For an extended discussion, see Suzanne Obeler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Identity and the Politics of (Re) Presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).Google Scholar

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97 The itemized list of articles found between 1976 and 1999 in the History of Education Quarterly (some concerning Latin America, not Latinos) is, in chronological order: Roderic A. Camp, “University Environment and Socialization: The Case of Mexican Politicians” (Fall 1980); Miguel, Guadalupe San Jr., “The Struggle Against Separate and Unequal Schools: Middle Class Mexican Americans and the Desegregation Campaign in Texas, 1929–1957“ (Fall 1983); Cooney, Jerry W. “Repression to Reform: Education in the Republic of Paraguay, 1811–1850“ (Winter 1983); Ueda, Reed “ School Policy and Immigrant Cultures,“ Essay Review, (Summer 1984); “Education and Politics, Politics and Education: Mexico in the Twentieth Century,” Essay Review, (Spring/Summer 1985); Mabry, Donald J. “Twentieth Century Mexican Education: A Review,“ Essay Review, (Spring/Summer 1985); Kantor, Harvey “Choosing a Vocation: The Origins and Transformation of Vocational Guidance in California, 1910–1930“ (Fall 1986); Miguel, Guadalupe San Jr., “Status of Historiography of Chicano Education: A Preliminary Analysis” (Winter 1986); Raftery, Judith R. “Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922–1932“ (Spring 1988); Yohn, Susan M. “An Education in the Validity of Pluralism: The Meeting Between Presbyterian Mission Teachers and Hispanic Catholics in New Mexico, 1870–1912“ (Fall 1991).Google Scholar

98 This date is chosen to continue, uninterrupted, the historiographical treatment begun in Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr. “Status of the Historiography of Chicano Education,” 523–536.Google Scholar

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119 Ritch, in Reports of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1874 p. 498.Google Scholar

120 This article is restricted to works on Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Philippines, although obtained from Spanish control, is considered an Asian population. See the excellent article by Judith Raftery on U.S. involvement in the Philippines, “Textbook Wars: Governor-General James Francis Smith and the Protestant-Catholic Conflict in Public Education in the Philippines, 1904–1907,” History of Education Quarterly 38 (Summer 1998): 143–164.Google Scholar

121 See Navarro, Jose-Manuel Creating Tropical Yankees: The ‘Spiritual Conquest’ of Puerto Rico, 1898–1908 (Ph.D. diss. University of Chicago, 1995); and Rodríguez-Fraticelli, Carlos Education, Politics and Imperialism: The Reorganization of the Cuban Public Elementary School System During the First American Occupation, 1899–1902. (Ph.D. diss. University of California, San Diego, 1984), esp. Chapter VIII.Google Scholar

122 Clark, Victor S. “Report to General John Eaton, Director of Public Instruction,“ San Juan, Puerto Rico, March 14, 1899 in Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1899–1900, Vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1901), 224.Google Scholar

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127 Korrol, Virginia Sánchez From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948. Google Scholar

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131 In Friedel's The Splendid Little War, op cit, Former Confederate General Wheeler is reported to have been asked when he arrived for duty in 1898 how it felt to “wear the blue again.” A West Point graduate, Wheeler replied, “I feel as though I had been away on a three weeks’ furlough and had but just come back to my own colors.” p.100.Google Scholar

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133 “Regulations for the Public Schools of the Island of Cuba, June 30, 1900,” in Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1899–1900, Vol. 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), 1643–1647.Google Scholar

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139 Analysis in this section is restricted to the authors’ published books. Each of these authors has presented condensed or interpretive versions of this research in journal articles and anthologies. See, for example, the chapters by Menchaca, San Miguel, and Gonzalez in José F. Moreno, ed., The Elusive Quest for Equality: 150 Years of Chicano/Chicana Education (Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review, 1999); Miguel, San and Valencia, Richard R. “From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood: The Educational Plight and Struggle of Mexican Americans in the Southwest,“ Harvard Educational Review 68 (Fall 1998): 353–412; and chapters in Darder, Antonia et al., eds. Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader (New York: Routledge Press, 1997).Google Scholar

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142 Gonzalez, Chicano Education, 157. See also the discussion of intelligence testing in Judith Raftery, Land of Fair Promise: Politics and Reform in Los Angeles Schools, 1885–1941 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

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145 Cecelski, David Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black schools in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Walker, Vanessa Siddle Their Highest Potential: An African-American School Community in the Segregated South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).Google Scholar

146 Miguel, San Brown, Not White, p.21.Google Scholar

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150 Key cases from these decades include Independent School District vs. Salvatierra, 1930/31 (Texas); Alvarez v. Lemon Grove, 1930 (California); Méndez et al v. Westminister School District, 1947 (California); and Delgado v. Bastrop Independent School District, 1948 (Texas). See Victoria-Maria MacDonald and Scott Beck, “Educational History in Black and Brown: Paths of Divergence and Convergence, 1900–1990,” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the History of Education Society, San Antonio, Texas, October 2000).Google Scholar

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152 Donato, Rubén “Hispano Education and the Implications of Autonomy: Four School Systems in Southern Colorado, 1920–1963,“ Harvard Educational Review 69 (Summer 1999: 117–149.Google Scholar

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155 Pozzetta, Mormino and The Immigrant World of Ybor City; Stepick, Portes and City on the Edge; and Sánchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community. Google Scholar

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158 Korrol, Virginia Sánchez “Toward Bilingual Education: Puerto Rican Women Teachers in New York City Schools, 1947–1967,“ in Ortiz, Altagracia, ed. Puerto Rican Women and Work: Bridges in Transnational Labor (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), 82–104.Google Scholar

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161 Ibid, 245.Google Scholar

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164 Padilla, Felix M. Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985).Google Scholar

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166 Olson, Olson and Cuban Americans: From Trauma to Triumph, 61; and María Cristina García Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 13. The earliest study documenting educational levels of the first wave (to 1962) of Cubans utilized a survey instrument and interviews with refugees registered with the Cuban Refugee Emergency Center. In that study researchers found that while only 4 percent of the refugees had less than a fourth grade education, 52 percent of adults in the 1953 Cuban census possessed less than a fourth grade education. Additionally, 23.5 percent of the refugees had between a 12th grade education and three years of college compared to 3 percent of adult Cubans in 1953. See Table 2.2 “Educational Comparison of Cuban Adults and Refugees,” in Richard F. Fagen, Richard A. Brody, and Thomas J. O'Leary, Cubans in Exile: Disaffection and the Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 19.Google Scholar

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168 Examples of state documents include Florida's Division of Child Welfare, “Cuban Refugee Children Program Correspondence, 1961–1968,” “Cuban refugee assistance program administrative files, 1962–1972” (Florida State Archives and Library, Tallahassee, Florida) which include the dilemma of placing Peter Pan children in schools and families. Peter Pan was the name given to the hundreds of Cuban children sent to Florida without their families. For a detailed discussion see Victor Andres Triay, Fleeing Castro: Operation Pedro Pan and the Cuban Children's Program (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998). Other examples of state-level documents include E.L. Whigham, The Cuban refugee in the public schools of Dade County, Florida (Miami, FL: Dept. of Administrative Research, 1970). At the federal level, the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare administered the Cuban Refugee Program and holds key documents relating to education. Two major universities in Miami possess important archival collections: The Cuban Exile Archives at the University of Miami and the Cuban Exile History Archives at Florida International University.Google Scholar

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177 Kanellos, Nicolas and Claudio Esteva-Fabregat, general editors, have published several volumes of The Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1994) and are credited with establishing the Recovering the U.S. Hispanic Literary Heritage project at the University of Houston. Education has not yet merited a separate volume in the Handbook but is partially included in the “Sociology” volume edited by Félix Padilla. Sol Cohen included two entries concerning Hispanic education in Vol. 2 of Education in the United States: A Documentary History (New York: Random House, 1974), 1020–1022.Google Scholar