Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T07:38:45.689Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pollution of the Stratosphere

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

Harold S. Johnston
Harold S. Johnston
Affiliation:
Professor of Chemistry, University of California, and Inorganic Materials Research Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, U.S.A.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Ozone in the stratosphere is vital to life on Earth. Yet it is chemically unstable and is susceptible to catalytic destruction from a long list of chemical substances, including NOX, HOX, CIOX, and metal oxides. In the stratosphere, these catalysts can be very active in ozone destruction, even when present at only one part of catalyst per 10,000 of ozone.

Pollutants can reach the stratosphere in two ways: (1) by direct injection, as from supersonic transports, military aircraft, rockets, or nuclear bombs, and (2) by indirect injection from the troposphere, which may occur for inert, water-insoluble substances that will eventually work their way up into the stratosphere.

The mass of catalysts sufficient to destroy stratospheric ozone at a significant, world-wide rate is less than the mass of the annual waste products from several industrial operations. In particular, the mass of nitrogen oxides from the exhausts of 500 supersonic transports is far above the threshold for significant catalytic destruction of ozone. This could have profound effects on the working and very maintenance of the biosphere.

Type
Main Papers
Information
Environmental Conservation , Volume 1 , Issue 3 , Autumn 1974 , pp. 163 - 176
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation for Environmental Conservation 1974

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, M., Fontanella, J. C., Frimout, D., Girard, A., Gramont, L., Louisnard, N., Muller, C. & Nevejans, D. (1973). Recent spectra of NO and NO2. Aeronomica Acta, 120, pp. 1–13.Google Scholar
Ackerman, M. & Muller, C. (1972). Stratospheric nitrogen dioxide from infrared absorption spectra. Nature (London), 240, pp. 300–1.Google Scholar
Ackerman, M. & Muller, C. (1973). Stratospheric methane and nitrogen dioxide from infrared spectra. Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vols 106–8, pp. 1325–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angell, J. K. & Korshover, J. (1973). Quasi-biennial and long-term fluctuations in total ozone. Monthly Weather Review, 101, pp. 426–43.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartholic, J. F., Halsey, L. H., Briggs, R. H. & Garrard, L. A. (1974). Effect of UV Radiation on Agricultural Products. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Blum, H. F. (1973). Ultraviolet Radiation and Skin Cancer. Proceedings of Second CIAP Conference, DOT-TSCOST-73–4, pp. 373–6.Google Scholar
Brasseur, G. & Nicolet, M. (1973). Chemospheric processes on nitric oxide in the mesosphere and stratosphere. Planetary and Space Sciences, 21, pp. 939–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, A. W., Mcelroy, C. T. & Kerr, J. B. (1974). Measurements of Nitrogen Dioxide from Concorde 002. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 19 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Caldwell, M. M. (1973). Ecologic Considerations of Solar Radiation Change. Proceedings of Second CIAP Conference, DOT-TSC-OST-73–4, pp. 386–93.Google Scholar
Caldwell, M. M., Campbell, W. F. & Sisson, W. B. (1974). Plant Response to Elevated UV Intensities. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Calkins, John (1974). A Preliminary Assessment of the Effects of UV Irradiation of Aquatic Microorganisms and Their Ecosystems. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Chang, J. S. (1973). Global Transport and Kinetics Model. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Report, UCRL-51336, Appendix B, 36 pp.Google Scholar
Chang, J. S., Hindmarsh, A. C. & Madsen, N. K. (1973). Simulation of Chemical Kinetics Transport in the Stratosphere. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Report, UCRL-74823.Google Scholar
Chang, J. S. & Johnston, H. S. (1974). The Effect of NOX Effluents on Ozone. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 25 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Chapman, S. (1930). A theory of upper-atmosphere ozone. Mem. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 3, pp. 103–25.Google Scholar
Christie, A. D. (1973). Secular or cyclic change in ozone. Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vols 106–8, pp. 1000–9.Google Scholar
Ciap, (1974). Climatic Impact Assessment Program. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, held in March 1974. Proceedings of the Conference will be published: National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P. J. (1970). The influence of nitrogen oxides on the atmosphere ozone content. Quarterly J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 96, pp. 320–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crutzen, P. J. (1971). Ozone production rates in an oxygen-hydrogen-nitrogen atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 76, pp. 7311–37.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P. J. (1972). SSTs—A threat to the Earth's ozone shield. Ambio, 1, pp. 41–51.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P. J. (1974). A review of upper atmospheric photochemistry. Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 52, pp. 1569–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dütsch, H. U. (1969). Atmospheric ozone and ultraviolet radiation. World Survey of Climatology (Ed. Fex, D. F.). Vol. IV, pp. 383–432.Google Scholar
Environmental Studies Board (1973). Biological Impacts of Increased Intensities of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation. National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C.: vii+46 pp., 4 figs.Google Scholar
Farmer, C. B., Toth, R. A., Raper, O. F. & Schindler, R. A. (1974), Recent Results of Aircraft Infrared Observations of the Stratosphere. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Foley, H. M. & Ruderman, M. A. (1973). Stratospheric nitric oxide production from past nuclear explosions and its relevance to projected SST pollution. Journal of Geophysical Research, 78, pp. 4441–50.Google Scholar
Girard, André (1974). Study of Minor Constituents in the Stratosphere by Absorption Spectrometry. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Goldburg, A. (1972). Climatic impact assessment for high-flying aircraft fleets. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 10, pp. 56–64.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, P., Tuck, A. F., Foot, J. S., Simmons, E. L. & Nelson, R. L. (1973). Nitrogen oxides, nuclear weapons testing, Concorde, and stratospheric ozone. Nature (London), 244, pp. 545–51.Google Scholar
Green, A. E. S. & Mo, T. (1974). An Epidemiological Index for Skin Cancer Incidence. Interdisciplinary Center for Aeronomy and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA. Mimeographed laboratory report, 15 pp.Google Scholar
Green, A. E. S., Sawada, T. & Shettle, E. P. (in press). The middle ultraviolet reaching the ground. Photochem. Photobiol.Google Scholar
Hesstvedt, E. (1973). Effect of Supersonic Transport Upon the Ozone Layer Studied in a Two-dimensional Photochemical Model with Transport. AGARD Conference Proceeding No. 125, Item 6, London, England, 8 pp.Google Scholar
Hesstvedt, E. (1974). Reduction of stratosphere ozone from high-flying aircraft studied in a two-dimensional photochemical model with transport. Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 52, pp. 1592–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoshizaki, H., Myer, J. W. & Redler, K. O. (1973). Potential destruction of ozone by HC1 in rocket exhausts. Chapter 4 in Advances in Aircrafts and Fuels. (Also Report LMC-D-354204, Lockheed, Palo Alto, California.Google Scholar
Hunt, B. (1966). The need for a modified photochemical theory of the ozonosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 28, pp.88–95.Google Scholar
Isaksen, I. A. (1973). The production and distribution of nitrogen oxides in the lower stratosphere. Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vols 106–8, pp. 1438–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, F. S. (1973). SSTs, ozone, and skin cancer. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 11, pp. 16–21.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1968). Gas Phase Kinetics of Neutral Oxygen Species. National Standard Reference Data Series—National Bureau of Standards, Number 20, 49 pp.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1971 a). Reduction of stratospheric ozone by nitrogen oxide catalysts from supersonic transport exhaust. Science, 173, pp. 517–22.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1971 b). Catalytic Reduction of Stratospheric Ozone by Nitrogen Oxides. UCRL Report No. 20568, 106 pp.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1972). Ozone and the SST. Environmental Affairs, 1, pp. 735–81.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1974 a). Photochemistry in the stratosphere. Acta Astronautica, 1, pp. 135–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, H. S. (1974 b). Supersonic aircraft and the ozone layer. Environment and Change, 2, pp. 339–50.Google Scholar
Johnston, H. S., Whitten, G. & Birks, J. (1973). The effect of nuclear explosions on stratospheric nitric oxide and ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research, 78, pp. 6107–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knipling, E. B. (1973). Ultraviolet Radiation and Photosynthesis. Proceedings of Second CIAP Conference, DOT-TSC-OST-73–4, pp. 379–85.Google Scholar
Komyhr, W. D., Barret, E. W., Slocum, G. & Weickman, H. K. (1971). Atmospheric ozone increase during the 1960s. Nature (London), 232, pp. 390–1.Google Scholar
Lazrus, A. L. & Gandrud, B. W., (1974). Summary of Nitric Acid Vapor Distribution. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 20 pp. (mimeogr.)Google Scholar
Loewenstein, M., Paddock, J. P., Poppoff, I. G. & Savage, H. F. (1974). Stratospheric Nitric Oxide Measurements. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 7 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Mcdonald, J. E. (1971). The SST: could it increase the incidence of skin cancer. U.S. Congressional Record, 19 March, S3483.Google Scholar
Mcelroy, M. B. & Mcconnell, J. C. (1971). Nitrous oxide: A natural source of stratospheric NO. J. Atmosph. Sci., 28, pp. 1095–8.Google Scholar
Mcelroy, M. B., Wofsy, S., Penner, J. & Mcconnell, J. C. (1974). Atmospheric ozone: possible impact of stratospheric aviation. Journal ofAtmospheric Sciences, 31, pp. 287–300.Google Scholar
Molina, M. & Rowland, F. S. (1974). Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes—chlorine atom catalyzed detruction of ozone. Nature (London), 240, pp. 810—2.Google Scholar
Murcray, D. C., Golman, A., Williams, W. J., Murcray, F. H., Brooks, J. N., Van Allen, J., Stocker, R. N., Kosters, J. J. & Barker, D. B. (1974). Recent Results on Stratospheric Trace-gas Measurements from Balloonborne Spectrometers. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 20 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Neher, H. V. (1971). Cosmic rays at high latitudes and altitudes covering four solar maxima. Journal of Geophysical Research, 76, pp. 1637–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicolet, M. & Vergison, E. (1971). L'Oxyde azoteux dans la stratosphère. Aeronomica Acta, 90, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar
Ruderman, M. A. & Chamberlain, J. W. (1973). Origin of the Sunspot Modulation of Ozone: Its Implications for Stratospheric NO Injection. Institute for Defense Analysis JSS-73–18–3, 49 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
SCEP (1970). Man's Impact on the Global Environment: Report of the Study of Critical Environmental Problems. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: xxii+319 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Schiff, H. I. (1974). Measurements of NO, NO2 and HNO3 in the stratosphere. Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 52, pp. 1536–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimazaki, T. & Ogawa, T. (1974). Theoretical Models of Minor Constituents’ Distributions in the Stratosphere and the Impacts of the SST Exhaust Gases. Paper presented at the IAMAP/IAPSO First Special Assemblies, Melbourne, Australia, 26 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Smith, K. C. (1972). The Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on Man, Animals, and Plants. Proceedings of the First CIAP Survey Conference, DOT-TSCOST- 72–13, pp. 243–9.Google Scholar
Stewart, R. W. (1973). Response of Stratospheric Ozone to the Simulated Injection of Nitric Oxide. Paper presented at the Fall American Geophysical Union Meeting, San Francisco, California, 46 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Stewart, R. W. & Hoffert, M. I. (1973). Stratospheric Contamination Experiments with a One-dimensional Atmospheric Model. AIAA Paper 73–531, presented at the AIAA/AMS International Conference on the Environmental Impact of Aerospace Operations in the High Atmosphere, Denver, Colorado, June, 7 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Stolarski, R. S. & Cicerone, R. J. (1973). Stratospheric chlorine: a possible sink for ozone. Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 52, pp. 1610–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, N. W. B., Harries, J. E., Birch, J. R., Bangham, M. J., Swann, N. R. W. & Neill, G. F. (1974). Studies of Stratospheric H2O, O3, HNO3, N2O, and NO2 from Air craftand Balloons (1974). Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Stone, Peter H. (1974). Limitations of Climate Modeling. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Telegadas, K. (1971). The seasonal stratospheric distribution and inventories of excess carbon-14 from March 1955 to July 1969. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Health and Safety Laboratory Report, 243, pp. 3–86.Google Scholar
Urbach, F. (1974). Field Measurements of Biologically Effective Ultraviolet Radiation and Its Relation to Skin Cancer in Man. Third Conference on the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, Cambridge, Massachusetts (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Warneck, P. (1972). Cosmic rays as a source of odd nitrogen in the stratosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, pp. 6589–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten, R. & Turco, R. (1973). A Model for Studying the Effects of Injecting Constituents into the Stratosphere and Mesosphere. AIAA paper No. 73–539, 8 pp.Google Scholar
Whitten, R. & Turco, R. (1974). The Effect ofSST Emission on the Earth's Ozone Layer. Paper presented at the IAMAP/IAPSO First Special Assemblies, Melbourne, Australia, 24 pp. (mimeogr.).Google Scholar
Willett, H. C. (1962). The relationship of total atmospheric ozone to the sunspot cycle. Journal of Geophysical Research, 67, pp. 661–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar