Introduction
The proliferation of English as an international language has had significant ramifications for the teaching and learning of languages in various educational contexts (Yu & Liu, Reference Yu and Liu2022). Within the realm of higher education, the adoption of English-medium instruction (EMI) has been a particularly contentious issue, with debates raging over its potential benefits and drawbacks (Bolton et al., Reference Bolton, Ahn, Botha and Bacon–Shone2022; Bolton, Botha & Lin, Reference Bolton, Botha and Lin2023). One potential approach to addressing the challenges posed by EMI is the adoption of translanguaging practices, which involve the utilization of multiple languages or language varieties in communication and learning. While the concept of translanguaging has gained increasing traction in recent years, there remains a paucity of empirical research on its implementation and impact within Sino-US educational institutions where translanguaging and EMI are facing enviable pedagogical dueling.
The present study seeks to fill this gap by conducting a qualitative investigation into the feasibility and potential benefits of implementing translanguaging practices at a Sino-US educational institution. This study endeavors to illuminate the perceptions and actions of students towards ‘translanguaging’ via qualitative methods, with a focus on identifying potential difficulties or hindrances, and the analysis of findings will be conducted through a thematic approach to discern patterns or trends in the data. This research holds significance as it may enhance comprehension of the intricacies and subtleties of ‘translanguaging’ within the milieu of a Sino-US educational institution. Additionally, the study's findings may have wider ramifications for the realm of Applied Linguistics, illuminating the utility of ‘translanguaging’ as an instructional strategy within the EMI context.
It is worth noting that the concept of translanguaging is not without controversy as well, and has been subject to criticism and debate. Some scholars have argued that translanguaging practices may be perceived as indicative of linguistic inadequacy or a lack of dedication to learning English, leading to stigmatization and marginalization (Cushman, Reference Cushman2016; Wei, Reference Wei2018; Kiaer, Calway & Ahn, Reference Kiaer, Calway and Ahn2022). Others have cautioned against the potential for a translingual approach to reinforce traditional linguistic hierarchies and norms, rather than challenging them (Matsuda, Reference Matsuda2014; Silva & Wang, Reference Silva and Wang2020). These critiques underscore the necessity of a scrupulous examination of ‘translanguaging’ practices and the need for careful consideration of the potential risks and benefits of their implementation.
The study's findings indicate that the implementation of ‘translanguaging’ at the Sino-US educational institute may be hindered by various obstacles such as the compatibility of EMI with translingualism, the scarcity of language learning resources, the prescriptive norms of English proficiency, and the absence of pragmatic value in multilingualism. These challenges may hinder the integration and maintenance of multiple languages and cultures, leading to a suppression of linguistic and cultural diversity. Therefore, it is crucial to examine these challenges in order to identify strategies and approaches that may facilitate the implementation of translingualism and promote linguistic and cultural diversity in the context of Sino-US educational institutions.
Literature review
Sino-US educational institution and EMI
As the global popularity of English propels a demand for English Medium Instruction (EMI) in higher education, there emerges a need to analyze how this transition intersects with local language policies and multilingualism, particularly within the dynamic socio-linguistic landscape of the Sino-US educational framework (Maiworm & Wächter, Reference Maiworm and Wächter2014). A significant aspect of this analysis involves examining the role of translanguaging, a linguistic approach that embraces the fluid and integrated use of multiple languages (Wei, Reference Wei2011).
A pivotal construct in multilingual education, translanguaging encompasses dynamic language practices enabling multilingual individuals to draw from their entire linguistic repertoire, without strict adherence to traditionally defined language boundaries (Wei, Reference Wei2022). This concept fosters a conducive environment for language and content learning (Canagarajah, Reference Canagarajah2013), especially in bilingual or EMI contexts, by legitimizing all linguistic resources (García & Leiva, Reference García and Leiva2014). Recent studies within the Chinese context, such as those by Jia, Fu and Pun (Reference Jia, Fu and Pun2023), Liu (Reference Liu2020) and Tai & Wei (Reference Tai and Wei2021), have highlighted translanguaging's pedagogical effectiveness and its potential for cultivating linguistic inclusivity and diversity.
EMI in Sino-US Educational Institutions and the Role of Translanguaging Sino-US educational institutions, especially those located in the linguistically diverse Greater Bay Area (GBA) of China, are increasingly adopting EMI to cater to global academic standards and attract international students (Shen & Gao, Reference Shen and Gao2019; Leung & Li, Reference Leung (梁慧敏) and Li (李楚成)2020; Moody, Reference Moody2021). EMI's adoption, however, is not without its challenges. Among these is the question of how to balance the hegemonic status of English with the linguistic diversity of the region (Macaro et al., Reference Macaro, Curle, Pun, An and Dearden2018). This is where translanguaging comes in, offering an alternative language ideology to challenge traditional monolingual and native speaker biases (Holliday, Reference Holliday2006; Kumaravadivelu, Reference Kumaravadivelu and Edge2006; Fang, Reference Fang2018; García & Lin, Reference García and Lin2017; Rose & Galloway, Reference Rose and Galloway2019).
In addition to serving as a pedagogical tool, translanguaging has potential implications for language policies within these institutions (Wei, Reference Wei2022). However, while language policies in the GBA officially recognize linguistic diversity, their effective implementation often encounters hurdles. A prevalent issue is the disconnect between policy and practice, with the conservative attitudes of stakeholders and the widespread reverence for ‘native speaker’ English posing significant obstacles (Hu & Lei, Reference Hu and Lei2014; Gu & Lee, Reference Gu and Lee2019; Yuan & Yang, Reference Yuan and Yang2023).
In light of these complexities, a more in-depth exploration of the role of translanguaging within EMI contexts is called for, particularly in how it intersects with language policies, attitudes, and beliefs of different stakeholders in Sino-US educational institutions. By bridging this gap, a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between EMI, translanguaging, and multilingual education in the GBA context can be achieved.
Translanguaging practices in the Chinese context
The incorporation of translanguaging in Chinese educational environments has gained recognition as an effective pedagogical strategy (Zhou, Li & Gao, Reference Zhou, Li and Gao2021; Liu, Deng & Wimpenny, Reference Liu, Deng and Wimpenny2022). Fueled by empirical evidence, classroom practices reveal that the strategic deployment of translanguaging enriches students' academic engagement and comprehension (Chen, Zhang & Huang, Reference Chen, Zhang and Huang2022). Tai and Wei (Reference Tai and Wei2021) have argued that these practices are not random, but are instead influenced by a myriad of individual, social, and cultural factors. Consequently, in the EMI milieu of Sino-US institutions, such considerations need to be accommodated to ensure the successful integration of translingual strategies. A number of research has focused on the different aspects of such integration including the role of the first language (L1) for Chinese international students (An & Chiang, Reference An and Chiang2015), translanguaging on social media (Qi & Li, Reference Qi and Li2022), identity construction in EMI programs (Gu & Lee, Reference Gu and Lee2019), and the potential benefits of EMI instructions and program policies for Chinese students (Zhang, Reference Zhang2018; Zhao & Dixon, Reference Zhao and Dixon2017). Moreover, a resultant finding suggests that the implementation of translingual practices, which perceive language as a multi-dimensional and spatially determined construct, can situate EMI within multilingual institutional frameworks and inform EMI curricula as transcultural and trans-epistemic processes in Chinese policies. (Pennycook, Reference Pennycook2006; Bolton & Botha, Reference Bolton and Botha2015; Botha, Reference Botha2016; Aman, Reference Aman2017).
The prevalence of translingual practices further underscores the need for EMI curricula within Sino-US institutions to be cognizant of the rich linguistic landscape of students, and to tap into these resources for enhanced learning. This alignment between EMI and translanguaging recognizes the legitimacy and benefits of fluid language use in academic contexts. In the research of utilizing translanguaging in the Chinese contexts, Tsou (Reference Tsou, Tsou and Baker2021) positions translanguaging as a localized strategy for EMI in Asia, and Wei & Lin findings (Reference Wei and Lin2019) support adopting translanguaging practices for academic engagement and comprehension.
While previous research has acknowledged the value of translanguaging, less attention has been paid to how these practices are perceived within Sino-US educational institutions (Jia et al., Reference Jia, Fu and Pun2023; Yuan & Yang, Reference Yuan and Yang2023). Specifically, an investigation into stakeholders' perspectives on translanguaging is scarce, creating a gap that this study seeks to address By examining these perceptions, this study can contribute significantly to our understanding of the socio-linguistic dynamics within EMI contexts.
Research questions
This study thus prompts two pertinent research questions:
1. How are translanguaging practices perceived by different stakeholders (students) within Sino-US educational institutions?
2. How do these perceptions shape the implementation of language policies and the delivery of EMI curricula within these institutions?
In answering these questions, this research can shed light on the intersections between EMI, translanguaging, and stakeholder perceptions, thereby enriching our understanding of multilingual education in the Sino-US context.
Methodology
This research was conducted within the Bachelor of Science Business program of a Sino-US Educational Institution (SUEI) located in the Greater Bay Area of China. This SUEI shares with other SUEIs a bicultural and international orientation, designed to equip students with a broad spectrum of pedagogical proficiencies. A significant proportion of the students expressed aspirations to pursue postgraduate studies abroad, signifying their belief in the value and transferability of their undergraduate experience.
Adopting a case study approach, this research focused on two students, pseudonymously referred to as Jenny and Kate, who exhibited both academic inclination and linguistic versatility. The case study methodology, primarily used for an in-depth investigation of a contemporary phenomenon within its real-world context (Stake, Reference Stake1995; Yin, Reference Yin2009), seemed particularly appropriate for an exploration of their translanguaging practices. As the study aimed to capture their evolving understanding of these practices, interviews were conducted at two stages of their academic journey: at the onset of their third year and at the culmination of their final semester.
The selection of Jenny and Kate was rooted in a purposive sampling strategy, with their readiness for critical reflection and linguistic adaptability offering valuable insights into the implementation and effects of translanguaging. It's worth noting, however, that this approach might run the risk of potential bias, but this was anticipated and mitigated through triangulation with classroom observations and writing samples, allowing a more comprehensive perspective.
Classroom observations took place during two of their final year courses, which emphasized the cultivation of multicultural awareness and the development of global educational frameworks. These observations, together with the interview transcripts, were subjected to a rigorous thematic analysis, allowing for the identification, analysis, and interpretation of themes within the data (Braun & Clarke, Reference Braun and Clarke2006).
In addition to the interviews and classroom observations, writing samples from multiple course assignments were also collected to enrich the data pool. These samples served as supplementary data, further corroborating the insights gleaned from the interview transcripts and classroom observations.
In detailing the complexity of Jenny and Kate's attitudes towards translanguaging, a ‘snapshot’ method suggested by Park (Reference Park2012) was employed in conjunction with thematic analysis. This technique allowed for the crystallization of pivotal moments of language use in the participants' academic experiences. The integration of snapshots in this study aims to provide a more diverse and nuanced understanding of translanguaging practices in multilingual classrooms. By selecting six key moments from the fieldwork, we aim to depict the richness of these practices in a real-life context, showing how they vary, adapt and innovate in response to specific situations. This approach aligns with our research objectives of exploring the complex nature of translanguaging, moving beyond theoretical discussions to capture the fluidity and dynamism of language use in multilingual environments. Each snapshot has been carefully chosen to showcase a distinct aspect of translanguaging, revealing the multiple dimensions of this linguistic phenomenon. We strive to present a comprehensive picture of translanguaging that reflects its true complexity and diversity, rather than a simplified or monolithic view. The selection of six snapshots is a pragmatic decision based on the aim to cover diverse instances while keeping the discussion concise and focused.
Every stage of the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process was approached with an awareness of my role as a researcher and a commitment to the ethical principles guiding academic research. Regular reflections on potential biases and preconceptions were carried out to ensure the accuracy and validity of the study's findings. All participants were assured of their anonymity and the confidentiality of their responses, with pseudonyms being used in the presentation of the findings. This methodological approach, marked by its conscientious selection of participants, data sources, and analytical techniques, is designed to offer a nuanced and robust account of the translanguaging practices within the Sino-US EMI context.
Findings
Snap Shot#1
I don't learn English at school, my English doesn't get improvements in this place.
(1) Researcher: Do you feel like that you have improved your English while learning at this place?
Jenny: I don't learn English at school. My English doesn't get improvements in this place.
Researcher: Why do you feel that your English hasn't been improved?
Jenny: Most of my classes are about a specialty such as accounting or eco. I focus more on getting high marks than English.
(October 8, 2021)
In Jenny's recollection of her college life, she recalls that she has received little English language training because most of their subject learning is not primarily focused on improving their language skills. The English language instruction at this SUEI is typically confined to standalone language classes rather than being integrated into other subjects, resulting in a scarcity of opportunities for students to practice using English beyond their language classes. Furthermore, the curriculum at the institute is often geared towards preparing students for exams and assessments that are not necessarily related to their language proficiency. As a result, students may not feel motivated to prioritize language learning when it is not directly related to their academic aspirations. This limited focus on language learning projects negative consequences for students' proficiency in English.
Jenny also stresses that she tends to focus on maintaining their GPA rather than actual language learning due, in part, to the emphasis placed on grades and academic performance and peer pressure at her program. Students may feel pressured to prioritize their coursework and exams in order to sustain a high GPA, which may leave little time or energy for language learning (Field notes, October 18, 2021). This overemphasis on academic goals over language learning can be detrimental to students' language learning progress, as it may discourage them from seeking out additional language learning resources or opportunities (Field notes, October 18, 2021).
Snap shot #2
If you are person who wants to learn a language effectively, you are being a bit opportunistic when using translanguaging.
(2) Researcher: So what in your views is translanguaging? And do you remember the last time you applied this skill in our school?
Kate: It's uh . . . I am not sure. I think translanguaging is about putting different languages into English and use English sentences with those different languages words or phrases? Is that right?
Researcher: I think I would agree with you. What about the use of it?
Kate: Yes. I think in Professor Pink's (pseudonym) class. I forget the English words for . . . Li, the chemical element. ha, I still can't remember it.
Researcher: What did you say?
Kate: I just said it in Chinese and the professor was totally confused but the classmates quickly understood so the professor did not stop me. (October 8, 2021)
Translanguaging can empower students with limited English proficiency at SUEI to leverage their multilingual skills for enhanced English learning and communication, by leveraging their linguistic resources such as utilizing their first language as a tool for translation or as a means of conceptualizing challenging ideas in English. In this manner, students conceptualize translanguaging as a means of facilitating the transition from their present linguistic aptitudes to their objective of attaining fluency in a second language.
(3) Researcher: That's interesting. Do you think that kind of translanguaging practice were helpful for your communication or learning here?
Kate: it's making daily interaction easier, for sure. I mean, it is definitely more convenient. But I don't think it should be used in class.
Researcher: Why is that?
Kate: Like I said, it's more convenience. If you are person who wants to learn a language effectively, you are being a bit opportunistic when using translanguaging.
Research: you don't think translanguaging is good for your English learning.
Kate: Yes, not really. I mean you need to learn the behind logic and think of a language in order to learning it completely.
Researcher: Can you elaborate on that?
Kate: I mean . . . like all English is important . . . you know . . .
Researcher: you mean the immersive environment?
Kate: Yes! It is that. You need to have immersive experience for English learning, or you can't really make progress. You just keep translating in your mind. (October 8, 2021)
However, in Kate's evaluation of such practices, while translanguaging can be a useful technique for SUEI students, it is crucial to recognize that it should not be perceived as an alternative to immersive language learning which is regarded as the ideal way of learning. SUEI students might regard that translanguaging could aid learners in the short term by facilitating communication and comprehension, but it does not necessarily result in long-term language acquisition and proficiency. To truly elevate their English proficiency, Kate reckons that it is necessary to immerse themselves in an all-English environment where they are consistently exposed to and required to utilize the language. This can be a formidable challenge for learners with low English proficiency, but interview results has shown that immersion environment is believed to be the condition for language learning because learners are enveloped by the language and are compelled to use it on a regular basis, leading to a more thorough and comprehensive understanding of the language. Therefore, while translanguaging can be a helpful strategy for some students, it should not be relied upon as the sole method for language learning, and immersion should be considered as a complementary approach. Kate's fervent espousal of immersion as a means for English learning is predicated on the notion that such an experience not only facilitates language acquisition, but also grants learners the opportunity to immerse themselves in the culture and lifestyle of an English-dominant community, thereby fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation thereof.
Snap shot #3
I mean . . . It's kind of disrespectful.
(4) Researcher: Have you had any negative experience about using translanguaging?
Kate: Not me personally, but I remember some bad examples for some classmates.
Researcher: Can you tell me that experience?
Kate: So, one girl in my class, she is not good at presenting, and she is just struggling on the platform. Some students were laughing at her.
Researcher: How did that make you feel?
Kate: I mean . . . it's kind of disrespectful.
Researcher: I see.
Kate: But I think it's also that girl's problem. I mean she did not care. She can't even read most of the words. If you have presentation to do, you can prepare for that. She didn't.
(March 13, 2022)
Students with inadequate English proficiency may experience discourteous reactions from their counterparts with higher proficiency or native English-speaking faculty members, which can manifest in various forms, such as derision or contempt of their linguistic capabilities, mockery of their accents, or exclusion from group work or classroom discourse. These reactions can be disheartening and de-motivating for learners with insufficient proficiency, as they may perceive their language skills as not valued or esteemed (Field notes, December 2, 2021). It appears that such reactions are prevalent among students with low proficiency, and they can have adverse effects on students' motivation and self-assurance.
In the meantime, Kate also iterates that, despite the difficulties that students with limited English proficiency may encounter in their language acquisition, it is also vital for them to assume agency in their own progression. In further discussion with Kate and Jenny, both of them agreed that there are numerous methods by which students can augment their English proficiency, such as through supplementary language classes, procuring language learning resources, or practicing spoken and written English outside of class. Kate firmly believes that it is essential for students to adopt a proactive approach to language learning, as this can enable them to overcome obstacles and increase self-assurance in their linguistic skills (Interview notes, March 13, 2022). By making strides in language learning, students can also cultivate crucial communication skills that can be advantageous in their academic and professional pursuits.
One impediment to the implementation of translanguaging practices in this context is that, native English-speaking faculty at Sino-US educational institutions may harbor biases against translanguaging practices, which may be based on the belief that the use of multiple languages or language varieties in communication and learning is indicative of linguistic inadequacy or a lack of dedication to learning English. These prejudices can obstruct the implementation of translanguaging in the classroom and discourage students from leveraging their multilingual skills. It is imperative for instructors at SUEIs to be aware of potential biases and to cultivate a more inclusive and supportive learning environment through the provision of resources and support for translanguaging practices, as well as by challenging the notion that the use of multiple languages is indicative of linguistic deficiency.
Another limitation is the potential for translanguaging to be de-motivating for some English learners. While translanguaging can serve as a conduit between students' extant language competencies and their aspiration of attaining proficiency in English, it can also accentuate the discrepancy between their present skills and their desired level of proficiency. To address these limitations, SUEI administrators must furnish resources and support for translanguaging practices and to be cognizant of the needs and motivations of their English learners.
Snap shot #4
Using English outside classroom will look very pretentious, you know.
(5) Researcher: Do you use English outside classroom?
Jenny: No, not really.
Researcher: Why not?
Jenny: Well, like, we all speak Chinese, some may speak Cantonese. So I don't really have anyone to speak English. A
Researcher: What about other dialects?
Jenny: I can switch because I know Cantonese and Chaozhou Hua (Teochew).
Researcher: But never English?
Jenny: Sometimes I use English with Kate for fun.
Researcher: Not with other friends?
Jenny: No. Using English outside classroom will look very pretentious, you know.
Researcher: Interesting. Why is that?
Jenny: Many reasons, maybe. I think it's that you are afraid of other people saying that you are appearing to work hard or something. It's not good, I know.
(March 13, 2022)
Jenny's concerns over the lack of opportunities of using English outside classrooms of SUEIs suggest that the lack of speech community for English potentially stems from a variety of factors such as the dominance of the students' first language in their social circles, the scarcity of English-language resources and materials in the community, or the lack of exposure to English-language media, pose a pragmatic obstacle for students’ language acquisition. Consequently, students may experience difficulty in maintaining and enhancing their English proficiency outside of the classroom, resulting in stagnation or even deterioration of language skills.
Another issue faced by students at Sino-US educational institutes is the potential for negative attitudes towards those who use English voluntarily outside of the classroom, which may be influenced by a range of factors including perceptions of linguistic superiority or inferiority, cultural norms and values (Field notes, March 3, 2022). These attitudes can create a hostile or unwelcoming environment for students who are trying to develop their English skills and can discourage them from using the language outside of the classroom.
The limited use of English outside of the classroom and negative attitudes towards voluntary English use may render translanguaging practices, the utilization of multiple languages or language varieties in communication and learning, less effective for SUEI students. Translanguaging practices may not offer adequate opportunities for students to advance their English proficiency due to insufficient exposure and usage of the language, resulting in a lack of progress or even deterioration in language skills. To address these challenges, instructors and other stakeholders must provide students with resources and support to utilize English outside of the classroom, thereby facilitating the development of their proficiency and sustaining their motivation and encouragement. Furthermore, it is imperative to work towards creating a more inclusive and supportive learning environment that values and celebrates linguistic diversity and encourages all students to cultivate their English skills.
Snap shot #5
I think my IELTS learning experience changed my attitudes.
(6) Researcher: Could you tell me a little bit about your experience preparing for the IELTS exams?
Jenny: Yeah, sure.
Researcher: Did you find taking the IELTS test a good learning experience?
Jenny: I think my IELTS learning experience changed my attitudes about English tests. Before, I just wanted to pass the test, but now I feel more motivated to improve my English.
Researcher: Can you elaborate on that a bit?
Jenny: I think it's because IELTs is clear and easy. Not that the test is easy, it's easy to . . . know what to do.
(March 13, 2022)
In Jenny's self-analysis, one possible means through which students may be motivated to engage in targeted language learning is the existence of a clear and specific objective (i.e., the IELTS exam). The preponderance of instrumental learning motivation for students at SUEI when preparing for the IELTS or TOEFL exams may be due to the clear and specific goals that these exams represent as widely recognized benchmarks of language proficiency, serving as a means to demonstrate English skills for academic or professional purposes. Such types of English learning objectives serve as widely recognized markers of language proficiency and may be pursued for the purpose of demonstrating linguistic aptitudes for academic or professional purposes.
Jenny also argues that the emphasis on IELTS preparation may prove more pedagogically efficacious, as it hones specific linguistic aptitudes, including lexical acquisition, reading proficiency, auditory comprehension, and compositional proficiency. Preparing for IELTS exams, which emphasize specific language skills, may facilitate targeted and efficient language acquisition for students. The potential rewards of enhancing one's English in this manner, such as obtaining access to higher education or employment opportunities, may serve as an impetus for students to engage in language learning activities that specifically target skills such as vocabulary building, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and writing.
Snap shot #6
The real world will be more harsh on your English.
(7) Researcher: Have you noticed any attitudes or behaviors from your teachers or other students about translanguaging uses?
Kate: um . . . some professors are great and very open about it. Some are not and kind of strict.
Researcher: Like how
Kate: Like they would be very critical about our use of English words or pronunciation. One professor would stop us during the middle of the presentation and ask us what did we say, we say it again, and he still don't understand. And it lasted for a long time.
Researcher: Do you remember what caused that interaction?
Kate: I forgot what it about, but it's pronunciation. The professor was strict about pronunciation. He would correct our pronunciation.
(September 29, 2022)
Native-English speaking faculty members may hold the belief that English proficiency is a function of time and resource investment, leading to an authoritarian attitude towards students whose English proficiency is not yet sufficient. As a result, those faculty members may prioritize the conditions of EMI, including so-called the immersive learning environment, as a means of fostering English language progress among students. English L1 faculty members may display relatively disapproving attitudes toward students who employ translinguaging practices, perceiving such actions as a means of circumventing linguistic challenges rather than as a legitimate and effective approach to language development.
(8) Researcher: How do you feel about that? Do you feel a little biased?
Kate: Yeah, a little. But I mean, you kind of need to improve. Most of our English is not good. And it didn't affect our grades. At least to our group. The professor said the real world will be more harsh on your English. It kind is.
(September 29, 2022)
English L1 faculty members' attitudes and behaviors may be perceived by students as a form of ‘native-speakerism,’ or the belief in the inherent superiority of native-English speakers, which can lead to unfavorable repercussions for students, including feelings of inadequacy or resentment towards the English language. It is imperative for all stakeholders to recognize and challenge the underlying assumptions and biases that contribute to native-speakerism and to provide resources and support for students to develop their language skills in a positive and inclusive environment.
Discussion
Perceptions of translanguaging practices within EMI contexts: A Sino-US perspective
Addressing our primary research question, ‘How are translanguaging practices perceived by different stakeholders within Sino-US educational institutions?’, our findings have highlighted the varied perspectives of different stakeholders. We found that some stakeholders view translanguaging as a vital pedagogical strategy, an outlook aligned with the findings of Yuan & Yang (Reference Yuan and Yang2023) and Jia et al. (Reference Jia, Fu and Pun2023). These individuals recognize the inherent value of linguistic and cultural diversity, as emphasized by translingualism, and advocate for its integration and maintenance in education and society. They resonate with the notion of translanguaging as an essential tool for enhancing academic engagement and comprehension, as described by Tai & Wei (Reference Tai and Wei2021).
However, we also identified stakeholders who perceive translanguaging as a deviation from standard language norms. This perspective mirrors the conservative attitudes towards language usage mentioned by Matsuda (Reference Matsuda2012). These stakeholders may operate under the premise that English is paramount for academic and professional success, which may lead to an emphasis on developing English proficiency at the exclusion of other languages. This restrictive focus can result in the entrenchment of monolingual ideologies and poses challenges to the installation of translingual practices at Sino-US educational institutions.
Language policy and curriculum delivery: Impact of perceptions of translanguaging
In investigating our second research question, ‘How do these perceptions shape the implementation of language policies and the delivery of EMI curricula within these institutions?’ our study revealed that these perceptions significantly influence both language policy implementation and the delivery of EMI curricula. We found that stakeholders who view translanguaging favorably, similar to García & Leiva (Reference García and Leiva2014), often promote more flexible language policies and demonstrate a tendency to incorporate translanguaging into their teaching strategy.
However, our research also revealed stakeholders with differing views, who regard translanguaging as a deviation from standard norms. Echoing the reverence for the ‘native speaker’ paradigm pointed out by Yuan & Yang (Reference Yuan and Yang2023), these stakeholders may insist on stricter adherence to monolingual policies and a more rigid EMI curriculum. Our findings illuminate the tension between EMI's pragmatic values and the liberal idealism of translanguaging, akin to the arguments presented by Cushman. The challenge, as demonstrated in our study, is finding a balance where students are not only enabled to proficiently employ diverse linguistic resources but are also empowered to negotiate and choose which linguistic resources to utilize in their communication.
Inclusive EMI strategies: Contributions from diverse perceptions of translanguaging
One significant finding of our study was the noticeable shortage of language learning resources within the Sino-US educational institutes, which acts as a hindrance for students in developing multilingual proficiencies, a crucial component of translanguaging. As shown in our study, this gap represents a considerable impediment to implementing effective and inclusive EMI strategies.
However, our research also offers a hopeful perspective. By acknowledging and incorporating the diverse perceptions of translanguaging into policy-making and curriculum design, we can work towards fostering a more inclusive language environment. This nuanced understanding and integration of diverse perspectives, as evidenced in our findings, can enhance the efficacy of EMI strategies. This approach will help to tailor EMI strategies more accurately to the diverse linguistic needs of students, acknowledging that what might be acceptable translingual practice in one context may not be recognized, or might even be stigmatized, in another.
Conclusion, limitations and future implications
Our study has endeavored to unravel the complexities surrounding the implementation of translanguaging practices within English-Medium Instruction (EMI) contexts, specifically within a Sino-US Educational Institution (SUEI). In this setting, translanguaging emerged as a significant pedagogical tool, albeit one with challenges to its effective integration.
Central to these challenges were the attitudes of native English-speaking faculty towards translanguaging, limited use of English outside of the classroom, and potential stigmatizing attitudes. It became evident that the adoption of EMI could inadvertently promote monolingual ideologies, which could constrain the expression of multilingual identities and impact the effective application of translanguaging. The lack of language learning resources, coupled with prescriptive norms of English proficiency, emerged as additional barriers that could inhibit students from effectively engaging in translanguaging practices.
This study, however, has its limitations. Being a single-location study, the generalizability of the results may be constrained. Additionally, self-reported measures may be susceptible to response biases, and researcher subjectivity could potentially impact the impartiality of the research. However, these limitations do not detract from the valuable insights garnered, which inform our understanding of translanguaging within EMI contexts and set the stage for future research.
Future research should consider a deeper exploration of the perceptions of faculty and administrators towards translanguaging practices. Further examination of the effects of language learning resources on students' capacity for translanguaging, and the potential broader societal impacts of a translingual approach beyond the classroom are also promising avenues. Additionally, investigating how translanguaging might challenge or reinforce traditional linguistic hierarchies could provide further insights into promoting linguistic diversity and multilingualism in educational institutions.
To conclude, this study underlines the necessity for a nuanced understanding of the application of translanguaging within EMI contexts. With the potential to empower students to leverage their entire linguistic repertoire, translanguaging practices can serve as potent tools for enhancing academic engagement, promoting multilingualism, and enriching educational experiences in EMI contexts.
DR. YIYANG LI is an Assistant Professor of English and the Director of the Academic Center for Excellence at the Bryant University-Beijing Institute of Technology Zhuhai. He holds a Ph.D. in Second Language Studies from Purdue University and specializes in world Englishes, second language writing, sociolinguistics, and translanguaging. Email: [email protected].
TAO PENG has been working as an Academic Affairs Assistant for three years in the Academic Center for Excellence at Bryant University-BITZH. She holds a bachelor's degree in English from Sun Yat–sen University and is currently pursuing a postgraduate degree in communication studies. Her research interests include intercultural communication, global communication, culture and media, and media management. Email: [email protected].
