The calciferous glands of earthworms are well-known structures, which occur under a variety of forms, and have been the subject of a considerable amount of research. They are appendages of the oesophagus which occur in different segments in different genera and species; and the usual view of their morphological nature, put forward by Beddard (l) in 1895, and for long generally adopted, is that their epithelium is the oesophageal epithelium thrown into various degrees of folding. Beddard describes these different degrees in a number of different forms.

The stratigraphy of the Neoproterozoic Dalradian Supergroup has been formalised at group, subgroup and formation level, based largely on mapping in the SW Highlands of Scotland. Elsewhere, there has been a tendency for the lithostratigraphy to be fitted into this framework, implying that the lithostratigraphy represents basin-wide changes in depositional environment. The pitfalls of this ‘layer-cake’ approach are illustrated by interpreting the geology of the Gleann Fearnach to Glen Shee area of the Central Highlands, using the published maps of the adjacent regions. Attempts to correlate units into the Braemar area in the NE and into the Pitlochry area in the SW show considerable mismatch between the maps covering these areas, which has in the past led to invocation of geometrically unlikely arrangements of faults and slides to explain the lithostratigraphical distribution.

The present study is the result of a different approach adopted during remapping of the Gleann Fearnach to Glen Shee area. Some basin-wide events, here suggested to be associated with key sequence stratigraphic surfaces, were identified. These principally relate to the deposition of Appin Quartzite, Boulder Bed and Ben Lawers Schist precursor sediments. Between these reference units the stratigraphy has been determined by detailed field mapping, and variation from the standard stratigraphy explained in terms of both the position within the depositional sequence and palaeogeography during deposition. This has led to an integrated solution which works on both sedimentological and structural grounds. There are local implications for the stratigraphy and structural geology elsewhere in the Scottish Dalradian, but, more importantly, it is an approach which must be more widely applied in order to make wider correlations beyond the British Dalradian to the rest of the Laurentian margin.

In a previous communication (Charles, 1938) gross reproduction rates were given for the counties, cities and burghs, and for the urban and landward areas of Scotland. The present communication is an attempt to correlate differences among these rates with measurable social circumstances, more especially with occupation and with frequency of marriage. Attention will be directed mainly to such differences in 1931.

Source materials for investigating the life of James Croll are examined and collated. This is organised around the topics of: Croll's Autobiographical sketch and the Memoir of his life and work, both contained within the volume produced by James Campbell Irons; publications by Croll; aspects of his genealogy; manuscript sources in publicly accessible archives and in private ownership; and other published sources.

Volcanogenic sediments form a significant part of the East Kirkton Limestone, with thin tuff units occurring at several levels and pyroclastic fragments being an important constituent of the coarser clastic limestone units.

The tuffs have been extensively altered during diagenesis but recognisable pseudomorphs after olivine and plagioclase phenocrysts confirm the basaltic nature of the volcanism. The considerable lateral variations in thickness of the tuff horizons in conjunction with the poorly sorted and lithologically heterogeneous nature of the tuffs indicate an epiclastic origin for the volcanogenic sediments. Well-rounded volcanic rock fragments—products of erosion—occur with angular fragments within the tuffs. Blocky tuffs in the lower part of the formation contain charred wood fragments, rip-up clasts of limestone and disarticulated amphibian bones. Graded bedding at several horizons and the presence of ostracods within some tuffs confirms subaqueous deposition.

The findings are consistent with the usual, dominantly epiclastic products of basaltic volcanism, in an equatorial, continental, humid environment, with assorted debris being washed from the flanks of a volcano into a shallow lake.

The portion of Berwickshire, of which the object of this paper is to describe the more remarkable geological features, comprises, within a very limited space, an assemblage of phenomena of the highest interest, in relation to the wonderful changes which this part of our island has undergone in the earlier periods of the earth's history. Its situation is immediately to the north of Dunse, and its area is about 16 square miles, within which are comprehended the junctions of the greywacke rocks of the Lammermuirs, with the strata of the old red sandstone formation, and of the latter with the lower members of the coal measures. The chief eminences within the district are Cockburnlaw, which attains a height of 912 feet above the level of the sea; Dunselaw, 630 feet; the Knock, Borthwick, and Castlemains Hills; and the Staneshiel, a hill of the same formation as Cockburnlaw, from which it is separated by a ravine of 300 or 400 feet deep, in which the Whiteadder flows. The general topographical features of the district will be best understood by reference to the accompanying map.

The analysis of Mineral Waters has always been considered as a difficult operation. Numerous methods are employed to discover their ingredients, and estimate their quantities, many of which are liable to errors. This diversity of method itself is a source of discordant results. And to those not familiar with such researches, it presents the difficulty often of determining what process is best adapted to discover a particular composition. Hence the advantage of a general formula, if this could be given, applicable to the analysis of all waters. The views which have been stated in the papers, connected with this subject, which I have had the honour of submitting to the Society, have suggested a method which appears to me to admit of very general application, and to be simple, not difficult of execution, nor liable to any sources of error but what may be easily obviated. The principles on which this method is founded, and the details of the process itself, form the subject of the following observations.

The material placed at my disposal for the purposes of this paper comprised the brains of four adult specimens of the Weddell seal, in addition to the brain of the young animal which has formed the subject of my former contributions. The four adult brains having been removed at the time the animals were killed, and preserved in a solution composed of spirit (90 per cent.) 6 pints and formal (2 per cent.) 4 pints, were, with one exception, in a firm and satisfactory condition for detailed anatomical examination. The body of the young seal had been preserved with a view to ordinary dissection, and therefore its brain was not in the firm state of the adult specimens; but as I had the opportunity of removing this brain from the skull, I was able to observe the disposition of the dura mater to the hemispheres of the cerebrum and cerebellum. While the dura mater presented, as a whole, its usual arrangements, it was noteworthy that the falx cerebri did not act as a septum between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum except to a very slight extent, and certainly for not more than one-third of the distance between the vertex of the cerebrum and the dorsal surface of the corpus callosum. As a result, in the region referred to the opposing mesial surfaces of the two hemispheres lay not only in close apposition with each other, but their convolutions were intimately adapted to each other. Similarly, the tentorium cerebelli only extended a short distance between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and, as the occipital ends of the cerebral hemispheres fell considerably apart from each other, there was space for the accommodation of the well-developed vermis of the cerebellum as well as for the bulbous pineal body, which occupied a position upon its dorsal aspect. As I removed the brain from the skull the stalk of the pineal body gave way, and probably the same thing had occurred during the removal of the adult brains, for, while different lengths of the stalks had been preserved, there was only one complete specimen of its bulbous extremity. Looked at from the vertex, the general outline of the whole brain was that of a four-sided figure with rounded angles, and the cerebral hemispheres concealed the cerebellum except where the vermis was exposed between them at their occipital ends. The frontal ends of the hemispheres were not rounded into frontal poles; but, on the contrary, they almost formed flat frontal surfaces. Similarly, the occipital ends were rounded and not pointed to form occipital poles. There was a small amount of difference in the absolute size of the adult brains, and the largest specimen measured 120 mm. in its fronto-occipital diameter ; 115 mm. in its greatest transverse diameter at a point well forward on the temporo-sphenoidal lobes; and 71 mm. in vertical height, measured from the pons varolii to the vertex of the cerebrum. Thus, apart from the peculiarity of its general outline in total size, it was only slightly less than an average human brain. Throughout the anterior two-thirds of their extent the cerebral hemispheres were, as already indicated, in very close apposition, and the falx cerebri only dipped into the pallial or superior longitudinal fissure to a slight extent; but in its posterior third this cleft opened to form a wide interval, measuring 65 mm. in the transverse direction at its hinder end and narrowing as it ran forwards towards the posterior end of the corpus callosum. In the deep level of this interval the pineal body and the upper surface of the vermis were visible, as well as part of the upper surface of the cerebellar hemispheres. It should be stated that the backward extension of the occipital lobes of the cerebrum carried them 2 mm. beyond the cerebellar hemispheres.

In its essential features the basal aspect of the brain conformed to current descriptions of the mammalian brain ; but it presented many special points of interest, to which reference will be made in the course of my survey.

Equations are derived which link the content of relatively insoluble components Si, Al, Fe and K in source rock and derived alluvial sediment. The equations also involve the ratio of specific suspended load to dissolved load and specific bed load to suspended load (Tb/Ts) for the rivers which deposited the sediments. These ratios are generally unknown, but by analogy with modern rivers are taken to occupy the ranges and 0 ≦ Tb/Ts≦1. This is sufficient to put close limits on the possible composition of the source rock. The equations suggest that clastic sediment forming the Late Proterozoic Torridon Group of Scotland was derived from sediments or metasediments, rather than from average upper continental crust, granitoids or gneisses like those presently exposed nearby.

With their extensive fossil record and shells of stable low-Mg calcite, rhynchonelliform brachiopods are attractive sources of climate information via seawater temperature proxies such as stable oxygen isotope composition. In Terebratalia transversa (Sowerby) there is a progression towards oxygen isotope equilibrium in the calcite of the innermost secondary layer. This study confirms the lack of any vital effects influencing oxygen isotope composition of T. transversa, even in specialised areas of the innermost secondary layer. Calcite Mg/Ca ratio is another potential seawater temperature proxy, that has the advantage of not being influenced by salinity. Mg concentrations measured by electron microprobe analyses indicate that there is no concomitant decrease in Mg concentration towards the inner secondary layer, associated with the progressive shift towards oxygen isotope equilibrium. Mg distribution is heterogeneous throughout the shell and correlates with that of sulphur, which may be a proxy for organic components, suggesting that some of the Mg may not be in the calcite lattice. It is essential therefore, to determine the chemical environment of the magnesium ions to avoid any erroneous temperature extrapolations in brachiopods or any other calcite biomineral.

The seeds of Peganum Harmala contain two alkaloids, Harmaline and Harmine. The pharmacological actions of the former alkaloid have been described in a previous communication to this Society; in this paper an account is given of the pharmacology of the second alkaloid, Harmine.

Harmine (C13H12N2O) was discovered by Fritche in 1847. Apart from a few observations by Tappeiner, its pharmacology has not been investigated. Tappeiner states that, in mammals at least, the general nature of poisoning by harmine is qualitatively the same as by harmaline, but that the former alkaloid is weaker in action. He found that a dose of 0·2 gramme per kilo of harmine is fatal to the guinea-pig in about 12 hours, while the same dose is fatal to the rabbit in about 1 hour, and that a frog is killed in about 7 hours by a dose of 0·03 gramme (per kilo?). He states further that there appears to be one qualitative difference between the actions of the two alkaloids, in that harmine produces paralysis of reflex excitability before arrest of the heart. It may be stated here that this does not constitute a qualitative difference between the actions of harmaline and harmine, because the same effect is produced by harmaline.

In a Paper on Vision through coloured Glasses, which I had lately the honour of submitting to the Society, I pointed out the advantages of coloured media in Microscopical and Telescopical observations. Having experienced the great utility of Green and Red lenses, in developing vegetable structures that required to be examined with high powers, I was anxious to derive from this new principle all the advantages which it appeared to possess. In attempting to do this, it became necessary to ascertain the power of giving distinct vision, which belonged to each separate colour of the spectrum, and though I had stated in my former paper, ‘that it was difficult to discover ‘any reason why one coloured medium should be preferred ‘to another, provided each of them transmits equal quantities ‘of homogeneous light;’ yet it was desirable to put this theoretical opinion to the test of direct experiment.

The sensory fields of four Wenlock trilobites Proetus (Proetus) concinnus, Warburgella (Warburgella) stokesii, Warburgella (Warburgella) scutterdinensis, and Harpidella (Harpidella) maura are described and found to be species specific. Certain features, such as the small cell polygon size, and prismatic layer comprising about one tenth of the cuticle thickness are characteristic of Order Proetida. Intraspecific variation is related to ontogenetic development, most markedly in the field of the free cheek of P. (P.) concinnus. The proetid occipital pustule may have functioned as a light-sensitive organ. The tropidium W. (W.) stokesii is a ridge with a central canal or groove, rather than a tubular structure, and probably contained a sensory receptor rather than a circulatory system. Despite microstructural distribution being species specific, it is of limited practical value in taxonomy as the fine details are easily lost during diagenesis.

Bédard and Sparks' (BS) comments are very much appreciated as they giveus the opportunity to emphasise certain aspects of our observations which, in turn, mayclarify the discussion on the petrogenesis of the Rhum ultrabasic rocks. BS raised two questions which we answer below.

1. This paper consists of two parts, the first of which is confined to describing the experiments performed; while in the second it is attempted to connect these with certain theoretical views regarding Radiant Heat.

2. The experiments were made with a fourfold object; at least, for the sake of clearness, it is well to class them into four distinct groups:—

Group I. Contains those experiments in which the quantities of heat radiated from polished plates of different substances, at a given temperature, are compared with the quantity radiated from a similar surface of lamp-black, at the same temperature.

II. Those in which the quantities of heat radiated at the same temperature, from polished plates of the same substance, but of different thicknesses, are compared with one another.

III. Those in which the radiations, from polished plates of different substances at any temperature, are compared with that from lampblack at the same temperature, with regard to the quality or nature of the heat radiated.

IV. Those in which the same comparison is made between the radiations from polished plates of the same substance, but of different thicknesses.

Heavy metal contamination in the paddy soils of China is a serious concern because of its health risk through transfer in food chains. A field experiment was conducted in 2014–2015 to investigate the long-term effects of different biochar amendments on cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) immobilisation in a contaminated paddy field in southern China. Two types of biochar, a rice-straw-derived biochar (RB) and a coconut-by-product-derived biochar (CB), were amended separately to determine their impacts on rice yield and their efficacy in reducing Cd and As in rice. The two-year field experiment showed that biochar amendments significantly improved the rice yields and that CB is superior to RB, especially in the first growth season. Using a large amount of biochar amendment (22.5tha–1) significantly increased soil pH and total organic carbon, and concomitantly decreased the Cd content in rice grains over the four growth seasons, regardless of biochar type and application rate. Arsenic levels in rice were similar to the control, and results from this study suggest that there was a sustainable effect of biochar on Cd sequestration in soil and reduction of Cd accumulation in rice for at least two years. Biochar amendment in soil could be considered as a sustainable, reliable and cost-effective option to remediate heavy metal contamination in paddy fields for long periods.

The Eocene sparid fauna (Teleostei: Percoidei) from Monte Bolca, Italy and from the London Clay, U.K. is revised based on re-examination of the type material and phylogenetic analyses of primarily osteological data. Two phylogenetic analyses, one of the Eocene taxa and a combined analysis of fossil and extant taxa, were performed. The addition of fossils to the extant data greatly increased numbers of most parsimonious trees, destabilising and obscuring basal relationships within the Sparidae. Combination of the data from fossil and extant data also affected relationships among the fossil taxa, changing some from those recovered using fossil data alone and destabilising others. Successive approximations character weighting supported the inclusion of the Eocene taxa within a monophyletic Sparidae. The genus Sparnodus, as previously conceived, is paraphyletic and is partitioned to remove the paraphyly. Five monotypic genera are recognised, including three new genera, Abromasta, Ellaserrata and Pseudosparnodus. Inclusion of the fossils in the phylogenetic analysis implies a minimum age of origin for the Sparidae of 55 Ma with most Recent sparid fauna in place no later than the Miocene, and provides further evidence that the diversification of feeding strategies occurred early on in the evolutionary history of the group.

Within the context of the work and achievements of James Croll, this paper reviews the records of direct observations of glacial landforms and sediments made by Charles Lyell, Archibald and James Geikie and James Croll himself, in order to evaluate their contributions to the sciences of glacial geology and Quaternary environmental change. The paper outlines the social and physical environment of Croll's youth and contrasts this with the status and experiences of Lyell and the Geikies. It also outlines the character and role of the ‘Glasgow School’ of geologists, who stimulated Croll's interest into the causes of climate change and directed his focus to the glacial and ‘interglacial’ deposits of central Scotland. Contributions are outlined in chronological order, drawing attention to: (i) Lyell's high-quality observations and interpretations of glacial features in Glen Clova and Strathmore and his subsequent rejection of the glacial theory in favour of processes attributed to floating icebergs; (ii) the significant impact of Archibald Geikie's 1863 paper on the ‘glacial drift of Scotland’, which firmly established the land-ice theory; (iii) the fact that, despite James Croll's inherent dislike of geology and fieldwork, he provided high-quality descriptions and interpretations of the landforms and sediments of central Scotland in order to test his theory of climate change; and (iv) the great communication skills of James Geikie, enhanced by contacts and evidence from around the world. It is concluded that whilst direct observations of glacial landforms and sediments were critical to the long-term development of the study of glaciation, the acceptance of this theory was dependent also upon the skills, personality and status of the Geikies and Croll, who developed and promoted the concepts. Sadly, the subsequent rejection of the land-ice concept by Lyell resulted in the same factors challenging the acceptance of the glacial theory.

This section under the above designation was first established by Pax in Engler's Bot. Jahrb., x, 205 (1889). The species chosen as representative of the section was P. nivalis Pall. This species with its numerous and widespread immediate allies affords an admirable centre for an exposition of the members of the section. The original definition of the section is still reasonably adequate, but its clarity was somewhat obscured by the admission of several species which indubitably belong elsewhere. Of the nine components quoted by Pax, five must be removed—P. sikkimensis and P. secundiflora, as well as the American P. Rusbyi and its two associates. In his Monograph (1) published in 1905 Pax made certain additions and corrections. The number of species indicated as within the section was increased to 15 He removed P. Rusbyi to what is now Candelabra, but P. Cusickiana and P. angustifolia were retained; so also were P. sikkimensis and P. secundiflora. On good grounds were included P. pumila, P. Aitchisonii, and P. eximia, but dubiously P. pulchella and P. Prattii. Correctly in our opinion came in P. Maximowiczii and its two allies P. szechuanica and P. tangutica.

A Description is given of the distribution and zonation of the dominant intertidal plants and animals found in a survey of rocky shores in Argyll, from Clachan Sound southwards to the south end of the Kintyre peninsula, thence northwards along the east side of Kintyre to Loch Fyne. Particular attention is given to two sheltered lochs, Loch Sween and West Loch Tarbert. Features of special interest in the area include: (i) a very small spring tide range (only 2–4 ft.) on much of the west coast of Kintyre, which results in a very compressed littoral zone by British standards; (ii) an unusual abundance of Chthamalus stellatus, often accompanied by a scarcity of Balanus balanoides, at very sheltered sites in Loch Sween and West Loch Tarbert (this problem is considered separately in Part II of the present paper); (iii) rich lower-shore populations in parts of the lochs, and especially associated with the Linne Mhuirich rapids in Loch Sween. In a concluding discussion the lower shore populations found in the survey area are compared with those observed in the rest of the British Isles. It is concluded that the rich lower-shore populations (often associated with rapid systems) that occur in many of the lochs on the west coast of Scotland constitute a major component of the littoral fauna and flora of the British Isles that has been largely unknown and neglected in the past because of the remoteness of many of the sites.