Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T06:42:19.330Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Late Pleistocene sediments, landforms and events in Scotland: a review of the terrestrial stratigraphic record

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2019

Jon W. MERRITT ,
Adrian M. HALL ,
John E. GORDON  and
E. Rodger CONNELL
Jon W. MERRITT*
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, The Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK. Email: [email protected]
Adrian M. HALL
Affiliation:
Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
John E. GORDON
Affiliation:
School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, UK.
E. Rodger CONNELL
Affiliation:
Geology, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK.
*
*Corresponding author
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Lithostratigraphical studies coupled with the development of new dating methods has led to significant progress in understanding the Late Pleistocene terrestrial record in Scotland. Systematic analysis and re-evaluation of key localities have provided new insights into the complexity of the event stratigraphy in some regions and the timing of Late Pleistocene environmental changes, but few additional critical sites have been described in the past 25 years. The terrestrial stratigraphic record remains important for understanding the timing, sequence and patterns of glaciation and deglaciation during the last glacial/interglacial cycle. Former interpretations of ice-free areas in peripheral areas during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) are inconsistent with current stratigraphic and dating evidence. Significant challenges remain to determine events and patterns of glaciation during the Early and Middle Devensian, particularly in the context of offshore evidence and ice sheet modelling that indicate significant build-up of ice throughout much of the period. The terrestrial evidence broadly supports recent reconstructions of a highly dynamic and climate-sensitive British–Irish Ice Sheet (BIIS), which apparently reached its greatest thickness in Scotland between 30 and 27ka, before the global LGM. A thick (relative to topography) integrated ice sheet reaching the shelf edge with a simple ice-divide structure was replaced after the LGM by a much thinner one comprising multiple dispersion centres and a more complex flow structure.

Keywords

chronostratigraphyice sheetlast glacial–interglacial cyclelithostratigraphy
Type
Articles
Information
Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of The Royal Society of Edinburgh , Volume 110 , Issue 1-2: Advances in Scottish Quaternary Studies , March 2019 , pp. 39 - 91
Copyright
British Geological Survey © UKRI 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

9. References

Aalbersberg, G. & Litt, T. 1998. Multiproxy climate reconstructions for the Eemian and early Weichselian. Journal of Quaternary Science 13, 367–390.Google Scholar
Abbott, P. M., Davies, S. M., Steffensen, J. P., Pearce, N. J. G., Bigler, M., Johnsen, S. J., Seierstad, I. K., Svensson, A., Wastegård, S. 2012. A detailed framework of marine Isotope Stages 4 and 5 volcanic events recorded in two Greenland ice-cores. Quaternary Science Reviews 36, 59–77.Google Scholar
Aber, J. S. 1985. The character of glaciotectonism. Geologie en Mijnbouw 64, 389–395.Google Scholar
Alley, R. B. & MacAyeal, D. R. 1994. Ice-rafted debris associated with binge-purge oscillations of the Laurentide ice sheet. Palaeoceanography 9, 503–511.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 1990. The middle Findhorn valley. In Auton, C. A., Firth, C. R. & Merritt, J. W. (eds) Beauly to Nairn: field guide, 74–96. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 1993. Dalcharn. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 154–159. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 1998. Aspects of the Quaternary geology of 1:50,000 Sheet 74W (Tomatin). British Geology Survey Technical Report WA/98/21.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 2003. The Quaternary and Devonian geology of Sheet 115E (Reay). British Geological Survey Commissioned Report CR/03/030.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 2017a. The Daless viewpoint in the middle Findhorn valley. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 188–198. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 2017b. Evidence for glacial lakes at Banchor and lower in the Findhorn catchment. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 199–211. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A. 2017c. Grange hill. Kinloss. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 92–100. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Auton, C. A., Gordon, J. E., Merritt, J. W. & Walker, M. J. C. 2000. The glacial and interstadial sediments at the Burn of Benholm, Kincardineshire: evidence for onshore pre-Devensian ice movement in northeast Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 15, 141–156.Google Scholar
Baden-Powell, D. E. W. 1938. On the glacial and interglacial marine beds of northern Lewis. Geological Magazine 75, 395–409.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K. 2007. The Loch Lomond Readvance on north Arran: glacier reconstruction and palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 343–359.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K. 2010. Extent and deglacial chronology of the last British-Irish ice sheet: implications of exposure dating using cosmogenic isotopes. Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 515–534.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K. 2018. After the ice: Lateglacial and Holocene landforms and landscape evolution in Scotland. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. DOI: 10.1017/S175569101800004X.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K., Schnabel, C. & Xu, S. 2009a. Readvance of the last British-Irish ice sheet during Greenland Interstade 1 (GI-1): the Wester Ross Readvance, NW Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 783–789.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K., Schnabel, C. & Xu, S. 2009b. Exposure dating and reinterpretation of coarse debris accumulations (‘rock glaciers') in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 24, 19–31Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K., Fabel, D., Gheorghiu, D., Rodés, Á., Shanks, R. & Xu, S. 2017. Late Quaternary glaciation in the Hebrides sector of the continental shelf: cosmogenic nuclide dating of glacial events on the St Kilda archipelago. Boreas 46, 605–621.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K. & Hall, A. M. 2008. The altitude of the last ice sheet in Caithness and east Sutherland, Northern Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 44, 169–181.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C. K. & Small, D. 2018. The last Scottish ice sheet. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. DOI: 10.1017/S1755691018000038.Google Scholar
Barrow, G., Hinxman, L. W. & Cunningham Craig, E. H. 1913. The geology of upper Strathspey, Gaick and the Forest of Atholl. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Scotland, Sheet 64 (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Bell, D. 1871. On the aspects of Clydesdale during the glacial period. Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow 4, 63–69.Google Scholar
Benn, D. I. & Dawson, A. G. 1987. A Devensian glaciomarine sequence in western Islay, Inner Hebrides. Scottish Journal of Geology 23, 175–187.Google Scholar
Benn, D. I. & Evans, D. J. A. 2010. Glaciers and glaciation. 2nd edn. London: Hodder Education.Google Scholar
Bennett, M. R., Huddart, D. & Thomas, G. S. P. 2007. The Newbigging Esker System, Lanarkshire, southern Scotland: a model for composite tunnel, subaqueous fan and supraglacial esker sedimentation. In Hambrey, M. J., Christoffersen, P., Glasser, N. F. & Hubbard, B. (eds) Glacial Sedimentary Processes and Products, 177–202. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bickerdike, H. L., Ó Cofaigh, C., Evans, D. J. A. & Stokes, C. R. 2018. Glacial landsystems, retreat dynamics and controls on Loch Lomond Stadial (Younger Dryas) glaciation in Britain. Boreas 47, 202–224.Google Scholar
Birks, H. J. B. 1993a. Fugla Ness. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 54–58. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Birks, H. J. B. 1993b. Sel Ayre. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 58–60. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Birks, H. J. B. & Peglar, S. M. 1979. Interglacial pollen spectra from Sel Ayre, Shetland. New Phytologist 83, 559–575.Google Scholar
Birks, H. J. B. & Ransom, M. E. 1969. An interglacial peat at Fugla Ness, Shetland. New Phytologist 68, 777–796.Google Scholar
Birnie, J. 1983. Tolsta head: further investigations of the interstadial deposit. Quaternary Newsletter 41, 18–25.Google Scholar
Bos, J. A. A., Dickson, J. H., Coope, G. R. & Jardine, W. G. 2004. Flora, fauna and climate of Scotland during the Weichselian Middle Pleniglacial – palynological, macrofossil and coleopteran investigations. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 204, 65–100.Google Scholar
Boulton, G. S., Smith, G. D., Jones, A. S. & Newsome, J. 1985. Glacial geology and glaciology of the last mid-latitude ice sheets. Journal of the Geological Society of London 142, 447–474.Google Scholar
Boulton, G. S. & Hagdorn, M. 2006. Glaciology of the British Isles ice sheet during the last glacial cycle: form, flow, streams and lobes. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 3359–3390.Google Scholar
Bowen, D. Q. 1978. Quaternary geology. A stratigraphic framework for multidisciplinary work. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Bowen, D. Q. (ed.) 1999. A revised correlation of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles. Special Report of the Geological Society of London, No. 23.Google Scholar
Bowen, D. Q., Philips, F. M., McCabe, A. M., Knutz, P. C. & Sykes, G. A. 2002. New data for the Last Glacial Maximum in Great Britain and Ireland. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 89–101.Google Scholar
Bowen, D. Q. & Sykes, G. A. 1988. Correlation of marine events and glaciations on the north-east Atlantic margin. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B318, 619–635.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. 2003. The Quaternary deposits and glacial history of the area around Inchnadamph, Sutherland. British Geological Survey Internal Report IR/03/120.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. 2005. Bedrock megagrooves in Assynt, NW Scotland. Geomorphology 65, 195–204.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. 2010a. Allt an t-Srathain. In Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide, 111–117. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. 2010b. Strath Canaird: glaciofluvial terraces and Lateglacial sea levels. In Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide, 123–127. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., Stoker, M. & Larter, R. 2007. Geomorphological signature and flow dynamics of The Minch palaeo-ice stream, northwest Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 609–617.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., Stoker, M. S., Golledge, N. R., Wilson, C., Merritt, J. W., Long, D., Everest, J. D., Hestvik, O. B., Stevenson, A., Hubbard, A., Finlayson, A. & Mathers, H. 2008a. The northern sector of the Last British ice sheet: maximum extent and demise. Earth-Science Reviews 88, 207–226.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T., Stoker, M. & Krabbendam, M. 2008b. Megagrooves and streamlined bedrock in NW Scotland: the role of ice streams in landscape evolution. Geomorphology 97, 135–156.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. & Stoker, M. S. 2010. Quaternary lithostratigraphy of the NW Highlands. In Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide, 29–37. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Bradwell, T. & Stoker, M. S. 2015. Submarine sediment and landform record of a palaeo-ice stream within the British–Irish ice sheet. Boreas 44, 255–276.Google Scholar
Brazier, V., Kirkbride, M. & Gordon, J. E. 1998. Active ice sheet deglaciation and ice-dammed lakes in the northern Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Boreas 27, 297–310.Google Scholar
Bremner, A. 1928. Further problems in the glacial geology of north-eastern Scotland. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 12, 147–164.Google Scholar
Bremner, A. 1929. The glaciation of the Cairngorms. The Deeside Field 4, 29–37.Google Scholar
Bremner, A. 1934. The glaciation of Moray and ice movements in the north of Scotland. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 13, 17–56.Google Scholar
Bremner, A. 1939. The River Findhorn. Scottish Geographical Magazine 55, 65–85.Google Scholar
Bremner, A. 1943. The glacial epoch in the North-East. In Tocher, J. F. (ed.) The book of Buchan (Jubilee Volume), 10–30. Aberdeen: P. Scrogie Ltd & Aberdeen University Press.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 1997. 1:50,000 Sheet 84W (Fortrose) of the Geological Map of Scotland. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2002. Dalwhinnie. Scotland Sheet 63E. Solid and Drift. 1:50,000. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2004. Tomatin. Scotland Sheet 74W. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits. 1:50,000. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2005. Solway West. Scotland Special Sheet. Superficial Deposits and Simplified bedrock. 1:50,000 Geology Series. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2006. Solway East. Scotland Special Sheet. Superficial Deposits and Simplified bedrock. 1:50,000 Geology Series. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2008a. 1:50,000 Sheet 64E (Ben Macdui) of the Geological Map of Scotland. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2008b. 1:50,000 Sheet 64W (Newtonmore) of the Geological Map of Scotland. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2012. 1:50,000 Sheet 73W (Invermoriston) of the Geological Map of Scotland. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
British Geological Survey 2013. 1:50,000 Sheet 74E (Aviemore) of the Geological Map of Scotland. Bedrock and Superficial Deposits. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
Brookfield, M., Merritt, J. W. & McMillan, A. A. 2010. The Powfoot boulder pavement. In Livingstone, S. J., Evans, D. J. A. & Ó Cofaigh, C. (eds) The Quaternary of the Solway lowlands and Pennine escarpment: field guide, 113–115. Durham: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Brown, E. J., Rose, J., Coope, G. R. & Lowe, J. J. 2007. An MIS 3 age organic deposit from Balglass Burn, central Scotland: palaeoenvironmental significance and implications for the timing of the onset of the LGM ice sheet in the vicinity of the British Isles. Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 295–308.Google Scholar
Browne, M. A. E. 2011. The physical geography and geology of the estuary and Firth of Forth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 93, 235–244.Google Scholar
Browne, M. A. E., Harkness, D. D., Peacock, J. D. & Ward, R. G. 1977. The date of deglaciation of the Paisley-Renfrew area. Scottish Journal of Geology 13, 301–303.Google Scholar
Browne, M. A. E., Graham, D. K. & Gregory, D. M. 1984. Quaternary estuarine deposits in the Grangemouth area. Report of the British Geological Survey 16/3.Google Scholar
Browne, M. A. E. & McMillan, A. A. 1989. Quaternary geology of the Clyde valley. British Geological Survey Research Report SA/89/1.Google Scholar
Cameron, I. B., Aitken, A. A., Browne, M. A. E. & Stephenson, D. 1998. Geology of the Falkirk district: memoir for 1:50,000 geological sheet 31E (Scotland). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Carr, S. J., Holmes, R., van der Meer, J. J. M. & Rose, J. 2006. The Last Glacial Maximum in the North Sea Basin: micromorphological evidence of extensive glaciation. Journal of Quaternary Science 21, 131–153.Google Scholar
Carr, S. J. & Hiemstra, J. F. 2013. Sedimentary evidence against a local ice-cap on the Shetland Isles at the Last Glacial Maximum. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 124, 484–502.Google Scholar
Chandler, M. P., Lovell, H., Boston, C. M., Lukas, S., Barr, I. D., Benedicktsson, I. V., Benn, D. I., Clark, C. D., Darvill, C. M., Evans, D. J. A., Ewertowski, M. W., Loibl, D., Margold, M., Otto, J-C., Roberts, D. H., Stokes, C. R., Storrar, R. D. & Stoeven, A. P. 2018. Glacial geomorphological mapping: a review of approaches and frameworks for best practice. Earth-Science Reviews 185, 806–846.Google Scholar
Chapelhowe, R. 1965. On the glaciation in North Roe, Shetland. Geographical Journal 131, 60–70.Google Scholar
Chesher, J. A., Smythe, D. K. & Bishop, P. 1983. The geology of the Minches, inner Sound and Sound of Raasay. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences No. 83/6.Google Scholar
Chiverrell, R. C., Smedley, R. K., Small, D., Ballantyne, C. K., Burke, M. J., Callard, S. L., Clark, C. D., Duller, G. A. T., Evans, D. J. A., Fabel, D., van Landeghem, K. J. J., Livingstone, S., Ó Cofaigh, C., Thomas, G. S. P., Roberts, D. H., Saher, M., Scourse, J. D. & Wilson, P. 2018. Ice margin oscillations during deglaciation of the northern Irish Sea Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 33, 739–762.Google Scholar
Chiverrell, R. C. & Thomas, G. S. P. 2010. Extent and timing of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in Britain and Ireland: a review. Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 535–549.Google Scholar
Clapperton, C. M. 1997. Greenland ice cores and North Atlantic sediments: implications for the Last Glaciation in Scotland. In Gordon, J. E. (ed.) Reflections on the Ice Age in Scotland, 45–58. Glasgow: Scottish Association of Geography Teachers; Edinburgh: Scottish Natural Heritage.Google Scholar
Clapperton, C. M. & Sugden, D. E. 1977. The Late Devensian glaciation of north-east Scotland. In Gray, J. M. & Lowe, J. J. (eds) Studies in the Scottish Lateglacial environment, 1–13. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Clark, C. D., Evans, D. J. A., Khatwa, A., Bradwell, T., Jordan, C. J., Marsh, S. H., Mitchell, W. A. & Bateman, M. D. 2004. Map and GIS database of glacial landforms and features related to the last British ice sheet. Boreas 33, 359–375.Google Scholar
Clark, C. D., Hughes, A. L. C., Greenwood, S. L., Jordan, C. & Sejrup, H. P. 2012a. Pattern and timing of retreat of the last British-Irish ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 44, 112–146.Google Scholar
Clark, C. D., Ely, J. C., Greenwood, S. L., Hughes, A. L. C., Meehan, R., Barr, I. D., Bateman, M. D., Bradwell, T., Doole, J., Evans, D. J. A., Jordan, C. J., Monteys, X., Pellicer, X. M. & Sheehy, M. 2018. BRITICE glacial Map, version 2: a map and GIS database of glacial landforms of the last British–Irish ice sheet. Boreas 47, 11–27.Google Scholar
Clark, J., McCabe, A. M., Bowen, D. Q. & Clark, P. U. 2012b. Response of the Irish ice sheet to abrupt climate change during the last deglaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 35, 100–115.Google Scholar
Clark, P. U., Dyke, A. S., Shakun, J., Carlson, A. E., Clark, J., Wohlfarth, B., Mitrovica, J. X., Hostetler, S. W. & McCabe, A. M. 2009. The Last Glacial Maximum. Science 325, 710–714.Google Scholar
Connell, E. R. 2000. Tofthead, Fochabers. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 38–39. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Connell, E. R. & Hall, A. M. 1987. The periglacial stratigraphy of Buchan. In Boardman, J. (ed.) Periglacial processes and landforms in Britain and Ireland, 277–285. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cousins, R. 2012. The glaciation history of Islay: implications for ice sheet dynamics in south-west Scotland. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK.Google Scholar
Crampton, C. B. & Carruthers, R. G. 1914. The geology of Caithness. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Croll, J. 1870. The boulder clay of Caithness a product of land ice. Geological Magazine 7, 209–14, 271–278.Google Scholar
Dahlgren, K. I. T. & Vorren, T. O. 2003. Sedimentary environment and glacial history during the last 40ka of the Voring continental margin, mid-Norway. Marine Geology 193, 93–127.Google Scholar
Davies, B. J., Roberts, D. H., Bridgland, D. R., Ó Cofaigh, C. & Riding, J. B. 2011. Provenance and depositional environments of Quaternary sediments from the western North Sea Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 26, 59–75.Google Scholar
Davison, S. 2004. Reconstructing the last Pleistocene (Late Devensian) glaciation on the continental margin of Northwest Britain. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK.Google Scholar
Dawson, A. G. 1982. Lateglacial sea-level changes and ice-limits in Islay, Jura and Scarba, Scottish Inner Hebrides. Scottish Journal of Geology 18, 253–265.Google Scholar
Dawson, A. G., Benn, D. I. & Dawson, S. 1997. Late Quaternary glaciomarine sedimentation in the Rhinns of Islay, Scottish Inner Hebrides. In Dawson, A. G. & Dawson, S. (eds) The Quaternary of Islay and Jura: field guide, 66–77. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Day, J. B. W. 1970. The geology of the country around Bewcastle. Geological Survey Memoir, England and Wales, Sheet 12. Institute of Geological Sciences. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Dixon, E. E. L., Maden, J., Trotter, F. M., Hollingworth, S. E. & Tonks, L. H. 1926. The geology of the Carlisle, Longtown and Silloth District. Memoir of the Geological Survey. Explanation of Sheets 11, 16 and 17 (England and Wales). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Duller, G. A. T., Wintle, A. F. & Hall, A. M. 1995. Luminescence dating and its application to key pre-Late Devensian sites in Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 495–519.Google Scholar
Dunlop, P., Shannon, R., McCabe, A. M., Quinn, R. & Doyle, E. 2010. Marine geophysical evidence for ice sheet extension and recession on the Malin Shelf: new evidence for the western limits of the British Irish ice sheet. Marine Geology 276, 86–99.Google Scholar
Entwisle, D. C. & Wildman, G. 2010. Creation of the Till Thematic Layer. British Geological Survey Internal Report IR/10/041. 14 pp.Google Scholar
Evans, D. J. A., Clark, C. D. & Mitchell, W. A. 2005. The last British ice sheet: a review of the evidence utilized in the compilation of the glacial map of Britain. Earth-Science Reviews 70, 253–312.Google Scholar
Everest, J., Bradwell, T. & Golledge, N. 2005. Subglacial landforms of the Tweed Palaeo- Ice Stream. Scottish Landform Example, No. 35. Scottish Geographical Magazine 121, 163–173.Google Scholar
Eyles, V. A., Simpson, J. B. & MacGregor, A. G. 1949. Geology of central Ayrshire. Memoirs of the Geological Survey Scotland. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Finlay, T. M. 1926. A tongsbergite boulder from the boulder-clay of Shetland. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 12, 180.Google Scholar
Finlayson, A. 2012. Ice dynamics and sediment movement: last glacial cycle, Clyde Basin, Scotland. Journal of Glaciology 58, 487–500.Google Scholar
Finlayson, A., Merritt, J. W., Browne, M., Merritt, J. E., McMillan, A. & Whitbread, K. 2010. Ice sheet advance, dynamics and decay configurations: evidence from west central Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 969–988.Google Scholar
Finlayson, A., Fabel, D., Bradwell, T. & Sugden, D. 2014. Growth and decay of a marine terminating sector of the last British Irish ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 83, 28–45.Google Scholar
Firth, C. R. 1989. Late Devensian raised shorelines and ice limits in the inner Moray Firth area, northern Scotland. Boreas 18, 5–21.Google Scholar
Firth, C. R. & Haggart, B. A. 1989. Loch Lomond Stadial and Flandrian shorelines in the inner Moray Firth area, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 4, 37–50.Google Scholar
Fletcher, T. P., Auton, C. A., Highton, A. J., Merritt, J. W., Robertson, S. & Rollin, K. E. 1996. Geology of the Fortrose and Eastern Inverness District. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 84W (Scotland). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Flinn, D. 1978. The most recent glaciation of the Orkney-Shetland Channel and adjacent areas. Scottish Journal of Geology 14, 109–123.Google Scholar
Flinn, D. 1983. Glacial meltwater channels in the northern isles of Shetland. Scottish Journal of Geology 19, 311–320.Google Scholar
Flinn, D. 2009. The omission of conflicting evidence from the paper by Golledge et al. (2008). Geografiska Annaler 91A, 253–256.Google Scholar
Forsyth, I. H., Hall, I. H. S. & McMillan, A. A. 1996. Geology of the Airdrie district. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 31W (Scotland). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Geikie, J. 1873. On the glacial phenomena of the Long Island or Outer Hebrides. First paper. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 29, 532–545.Google Scholar
Geikie, J. 1878. On the glacial phenomena of the Long Island or Outer Hebrides. Second paper. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 34, 819–870.Google Scholar
Gemmell, A. M. D. 1973. The deglaciation of the Island of Arran, Scotland. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 59, 25–39.Google Scholar
Gemmell, A. M. D., Murray, A. S. & Connell, E. R. 2007. Devensian glacial events in Buchan (NE Scotland): a progress report on new OSL dates and their implications. Quaternary Geochronology 2, 237–242.Google Scholar
Gemmell, A. M. D. & Ralston, I. B. M. 1984. Some recent discoveries of ice-wedge cast networks in north-east Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 20, 115–118.Google Scholar
Gibbard, P. L. & Clark, C. D. 2011. Pleistocene glaciation limits in Great Britain. In Gibbard, P. L. & Hughes, P. D. (eds) Quaternary glaciations – extent and chronology. A closer look. Developments in Quaternary Science 15, 75–93. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Gibbard, P. L. & Lewin, J. 2016. Partitioning the Quaternary. Quaternary Science Reviews 151, 127–139.Google Scholar
Goldthwaite, R. P. 1979. Giant grooves made by concentrated basal ice streams. Journal of Glaciology 23, 297–307.Google Scholar
Golledge, N. R., Finlayson, A., Bradwell, T. & Everest, J. D. 2008. The last glaciation of Shetland, North Atlantic. Geografiska Annaler 90A, 37–53.Google Scholar
Golledge, N. R. & Stoker, M. S. 2006. A palaeo-ice stream of the British ice sheet in eastern Scotland. Boreas 35, 231–243.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993a. The glaciation of Caithness. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 87–91. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993b. Baile an t'Sratha. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 91–92. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993c. Drumhollistan. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 92–94. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993d. Leavad. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 94–95. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993e. Clava. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 165–170. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993f. Boyne Quarry. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 233–236. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993g. Kippet Hills. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 242–245. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993h. The Cairngorms. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 259–276. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993i. North-west coast of Lewis. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 414–421. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993j. Port of Ness. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 421–423. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993k. Afton Lodge. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 538–541. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993l. Carstairs Kames. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 544–549. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. 1993m. The glaciation of the Edinburgh and Lothians area. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 562–565. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E., Hall, A. M. & Ross, H. M. 1993. Introduction to the Quaternary of Shetland. In Birnie, J., Gordon, J. E., Bennett, K. D. & Hall, A. M. (eds) The Quaternary of Shetland: field guide, 6–8. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) 1993a. Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. 1993b. Tolsta Head. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 423–425. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Graham, A. G., Lonergan, L. & Stoker, M. S. 2007. Evidence for Late Pleistocene ice stream activity in the Witch Ground Basin, central North Sea, from 3D seismic reflection data. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 627–643.Google Scholar
Graham, A. G., Lonergan, L. & Stoker, M. S. 2009. Seafloor glacial features reveal the extent and decay of the last British ice sheet, east of Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 24, 117–138.Google Scholar
Graham, A. G., Lonergan, L. & Stoker, M. S. 2010. Depositional environments and chronology of Late Weichselian glaciation and deglaciation in the central North Sea. Boreas 39, 471–491.Google Scholar
Graham, A. G., Stoker, M. S., Lonergan, L., Bradwell, T. & Stewart, M. A. 2011. The Pleistocene glaciations of the North Sea Basin. In Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. & Hughes, P. D. (eds) Quaternary glaciations-extent and chronology. A closer look. Developments in Quaternary Science 15, 261–278. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Gray, J. M. 1993. Glencardoch Point. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 313–316. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Greenwood, S. L. & Clark, C. D. 2009. Reconstructing the last Irish ice sheet 2: a geomorphologically-driven model of ice sheet growth, retreat and dynamics. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 3101–3123.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. (ed.) 1984. Buchan field guide. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. 1995. Was all of Lewis glaciated in the Late Devensian? Quaternary Newsletter 76, 1–7.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. 1996a. Quaternary geomorphology of the Outer Hebrides. In Gilbertson, D., Kent, M. & Grattan, J. (eds) The Outer Hebrides: the last 14,000 years, 5–12. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. 1996b. Scara Taing. In Hall, A. M. (ed.) The Quaternary of Orkney: field guide, 122–123. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. 2013. The last glaciation of Shetland: local ice cap or invasive ice sheet? Norwegian Journal of Geology 93, 229–242.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Gordon, J. E. & Whittington, G. 1993a. Early Devensian interstadial peat at Sel Ayre, Shetland. In Birnie, J. F., Gordon, J. E., Bennett, K. D. & Hall, A. M. (eds) The Quaternary of Shetland: field guide, 104–118. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Whittington, G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993b. Interglacial peat at Fugla Ness, Shetland. In Birnie, J. F., Gordon, J. E., Bennett, K. D. & Hall, A. M. (eds) The Quaternary of Shetland: field guide, 62–76. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Whittington, G., Duller, G. A. T. & Jarvis, J. 1995a. Late Pleistocene environments in lower Strathspey, Scotland. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 85, 253–273.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Duller, G., Jarvis, J. & Wintle, A. G. 1995b. Middle Devensian ice-proximal gravels at Howe of Byth, Grampian Region. Scottish Journal of Geology 31, 61–64.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Gordon, J. E., Whittington, G., Duller, G. A. T. & Heijnis, H. 2002. Sedimentology, palaeoecology and geochronology of Marine Isotope Stage 5 deposits on the Shetland Isles, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 17, 51–68.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Auton, C. A., Michie, U., Pearson, S. & Riding, J. 2011. Switching flow patterns within the last ice sheet in northern Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 47, 157–167.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Riding, J. B. & Brown, J. F. 2016a. The last glaciation in Orkney, Scotland: glacial stratigraphy, event sequence and flow paths. Scottish Journal of Geology 52, 90–101.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Binnie, S. A., Sugden, D. E., Dunai, T. J. & Wood, C. 2016b. Late readvance and rapid final deglaciation of the last ice sheet in the Grampian Mountains, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 31, 869–878.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M., Merritt, J. W. & Connell, E. R. & Hubbard, A. 2018. Early and Middle Pleistocene environments, landforms and sediments in Scotland. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. DOI: 10.1017/S1755691018000713.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Connell, E. R. 1991. The glacial deposits of Buchan, Northeast Scotland. In Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. & Rose, J. (eds) Glacial deposits in Great Britain and Ireland, 129–136. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Connell, E. R. 2000. Howe of Byth Quarry. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 72–74. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Fraser, P. A. 2014. The glacial erratics of Fair Isle. Shetland Naturalist 3, 52–59.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Glasser, N. F. 2003. Reconstructing the basal thermal regime of an ice stream in a landscape of selective linear erosion: Glen Avon, Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Boreas 32, 191–207.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Jarvis, J. 1989. A preliminary report on the Late Devensian glaciomarine deposits around St Fergus, Grampian Region. Quaternary Newsletter 59, 5–7.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Jarvis, J. 1993a. Kirkhill. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 225–230. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Jarvis, J. 1993b. Bellscamphie. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 230–233. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Jarvis, J. 1995. A multiple till sequence near Ellon, Grampian Region: T.F. Jamieson's ‘indigo boulder clay' re-examined. Scottish Journal of Geology 31, 53–59.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Peacock, J. D. 2000. King Edward. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 43–45. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Riding, J. 2016. The last glaciation in Caithness, Scotland: revised till stratigraphy and ice-flow paths indicate multiple ice flow phases. Scottish Journal of Geology 52, 77–89.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Sugden, D. E. 1987. Limited modification of mid-latitude landscapes by ice sheets. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 12, 531–542.Google Scholar
Hall, A. M. & Whittington, G. 1989. Late Devensian glaciation of southern Caithness. Scottish Journal of Geology 25, 307–324.Google Scholar
Hall, I. H. S., Browne, M. A. E. & Forsyth, I. H. 1998. Geology of the Glasgow District. Memoir of the British Geological Survey, Sheet 30E (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Hebdon, N. J., Atkinson, T. C., Lawson, T. J. & Young, I. R. 1997. Rate of glacial valley deepening during the Late Quaternary in Assynt, Scotland. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 22, 305–315.Google Scholar
Heijnis, H. & van der Plicht, J. 1992. Uranium/thorium dating of Late Pleistocene peat deposits in NW Europe, uranium/thorium systematics and open-system behaviour of peat layers. Chemical Geology 94, 161–171.Google Scholar
Helle, M., Sonstegaard, E., Coope, G. R. & Rye, N. 1981. Early Weichselian peat at Brumunddal, southeastern Norway. Boreas 10, 369–379.Google Scholar
Hibbert, F., Austin, W. E. N., Leng, M. J. & Gatliffe, R. W. 2010. British ice sheet dynamics inferred from North Atlantic ice-rafted debris records spanning the last 175 000 years. Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 461–482.Google Scholar
Hiemstra, J. F., Shakesby, R. A. & Vieli, A. 2015. Late Quaternary glaciation in the Hebrides sector of the continental shelf: was St Kilda overrun by the British-Irish ice sheet? Boreas 44, 178–196.Google Scholar
Hinxman, L. W. & Anderson, E. M. 1915. The geology of Mid-Strathspey and Strathdearn, including the country between Kingussie and Grantown. Explanation of Sheet 74. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Holden, W. G. & Jardine, W. G. 1980. Greenock Mains and Nith Bridge. In Jardine, W. G. (ed.) Field guide to the Glasgow region, 18–21. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Hollingworth, S. E. 1931. Glaciation of western Edenside and adjoining areas and the drumlins of the Edenside and Solway basin. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 87, 281–359.Google Scholar
Hoppe, G. 1974. The glacial history of the Shetland Islands. Institute of British Geographers Special Publication 7, 197–210.Google Scholar
Horne, J. 1923. The geology of the lower Findhorn and lower Strath Nairn. Explanation of sheet 84 and part of 94. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Horne, J. & Hinxman, L. W. 1914. The geology of the country around Beauly and Inverness. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Sheet 83 (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Houmark-Nielsen, M. & Kjaer, K. H. 2003. Southwest Scandinavia, 40–15kyr BP: palaeogeography and environmental change. Journal of Quaternary Science 18, 769–786.Google Scholar
Hubbard, A., Bradwell, T., Golledge, N., Hall, A., Patton, H., Sugden, D., Cooper, R. & Stoker, M. 2009. Dynamic cycles, ice streams and their impact on the extent, chronology and deglaciation of the British-Irish ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 758–776.Google Scholar
Huddart, D. 1991. The glacial history and deposits of the North and West Cumbrian lowlands. In Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. & Rose, J. (eds) Glacial deposits in Great Britain and Ireland, 151–167. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Huddart, D. & Bennett, M. R. 1997. The Carstairs Kames (Lanarkshire, Scotland): morphology, sedimentology and formation. Journal of Quaternary Science 12, 467–484.Google Scholar
Hughes, A. L. C., Clark, C. D. & Jordan, C. J. 2010. Subglacial bedforms of the last British ice sheet. Journal of Maps 6, 543–563.Google Scholar
Hughes, A. L. C., Clark, C. D. & Jordan, C. J. 2014. Flow-pattern evolution of the last British ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 89, 148–168.Google Scholar
Hughes, A. L. C., Gyllencreutz, R., Lohne, Ø. S., Mangerud, J. & Svendsen, J. I. 2016. The last Eurasian ice sheets – a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1. Boreas 45, 1–45.Google Scholar
Hughes, P. D., Gibbard, P. L. & Ehlers, J. 2013. Timing of glaciation during the last glacial cycle: evaluating the concept of a global ‘Last Glacial Maximum' (LGM). Earth-Science Reviews 125, 171–198.Google Scholar
Hughes, P. D. & Gibbard, P. L. 2015. A stratigraphical basis for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Quaternary International 383, 174–185.Google Scholar
Jacobi, R. M., Rose, J., MacLeod, A. & Higham, T. F. G. 2009. Revised radiocarbon ages on woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) from western central Scotland: significance for timing the extinction of woolly rhinoceros in Britain and the onset of the LGM in central Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 2551–2556.Google Scholar
Jamieson, T. F. 1882. On the Red Clay of the Aberdeenshire coast and the direction of ice-movement in that quarter. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 38, 160–177.Google Scholar
Jamieson, T. F. 1906. The glacial period in Aberdeenshire and the southern border of the Moray Firth. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 62, 13–39.Google Scholar
Jardine, W. G., Dickson, J. H., Haughton, P. D. W., Harkness, D. D., Bowen, D. Q. & Sykes, G. A. 1988. A late Middle Devensian interstadial site at Sourlie, near Irvine, Strathclyde. Scottish Journal of Geology 24, 288–295.Google Scholar
Jehu, T. J. & Craig, R. M. 1925. The geology of the Outer Hebrides- Part II. South Uist and Eriskay. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 53, 615–641.Google Scholar
Johnson, H., Richards, P. C., Long, D. & Graham, C. C. 1993. United Kingdon offshore regional report: the geology of the Northern North Sea. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Kearsey, T. I., Lee, J. R., Finlayson, A., Garcia-Bajo, M. & Irving, A. M. 2018. Examining the geometry, age and genesis of buried Quaternary valley systems in the Midland Valley of Scotland, UK. Boreas. DOI: 10.1111/bor.12364.Google Scholar
Kehew, A. E., Piotrowski, J. A. & Jørgensen, F. 2012. Tunnel valleys: concepts and controversies – a review. Earth-Science Reviews 113, 33–58.Google Scholar
Kitchener, A. C. & Bonsall, C. 1997. AMS radiocarbon dates on some extinct Scottish mammals. Quaternary Newsletter 83, 1–11.Google Scholar
Kleman, J. 1994. Preservation of landforms under ice sheets and ice caps. Geomorphology 9, 19–32.Google Scholar
Knutz, P. C., Austin, W. E. N. & Jones, E. J. W. 2001. Millennial-scale depositional cycles related to British ice sheet variability and North Atlantic paleocirculation since 45 kyr BP, Barra Fan, U.K. margin. Paleoceanography 16, 53–64.Google Scholar
Krabbendam, M., Eyles, N., Putkinen, N., Bradwell, T. & Arbelaez-Moreno, L. 2016. Streamlined hard beds formed by palaeo-ice streams: a review. Sedimentary Geology 338, 24–50.Google Scholar
Krabbendam, M. & Bradwell, T. 2014. Quaternary evolution of glaciated gneiss terrains: pre-glacial weathering vs. glacial erosion. Quaternary Science Reviews 95, 20–42.Google Scholar
Lambeck, K., Rouby, H., Purcell, A., Sun, Y. & Sambridge, M. 2014. Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene. PNAS 111, 15296–303.Google Scholar
Larsen, E. & Mangerud, J. 1989. Marine caves: on-off signals for glaciation. Quaternary International 3/4, 13–19.Google Scholar
Larsen, N. K., Knudsen, K. L., Krohn, C. F., Kronborg, C., Murray, A. S. & Nielsen, O. B. 2009. Late Quaternary ice sheet, lake and sea history of southwest Scandinavia –a synthesis. Boreas 38, 732–761.Google Scholar
Latham, A. & Ford, D. 2013. Chronology of the caves. In Waltham, A. & Lowe, D. (eds) Caves and karst of the Yorkshire Dales, 169–180. Nottingham: British Cave Research Association.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J. 1993. Creag nan Uamh. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 54–58. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J. 1995a. The Creag nan Uamh Caves. In Lawson, T. J. (ed.) The Quaternary of Assynt and Coigach: field guide, 87–103. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J. 1995b. An analysis of sediments in caves in the Assynt area, N.W. Scotland. Cave and Karst Science 22, 3–30.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J. 2010. The Allt nan Uamh valley and its caves: their significance for the chronology of glaciation and deglaciation of northern Scotland. In Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide, 165–168. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J., Young, I. R., Kitchener, A. C. & Birch, S. 2014. Middle and Late Devensian radiocarbon dates from the Uamh an Claonaite cave system in Assynt, Scotland. Quaternary Newsletter 133, 4–10.Google Scholar
Lawson, T. J. & Atkinson, T. C. 1995. Quaternary chronology. In Lawson, T. J. (ed.) The Quaternary of Assynt and Coigach: field guide, 12–18. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lisiecki, L. E. & Raymo, M. E. 2005. A Plio-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records. Paleoceanography 20, PA1003.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Ó Cofaigh, C. & Evans, D. J. A. 2008. Glacial geomorphology of the central sector of the last British-Irish ice sheet. Journal of Maps 4, 358–377.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Ó Cofaigh, C., Evans, D. J. A. & Palmer, A. 2010a. Glaciolacustrine sedimentation in the Solway Lowlands (Cumbria, UK): evidence for a major glacial oscillation during Late Devensian deglaciation. Boreas 39, 505–527.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Evans, D. J. A. & Ó Cofaigh, C. 2010b. Re-advance of Scottish ice into the Solway Lowlands (Cumbria, UK) during the Main Late Devensian deglaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 2544–2570.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Ó Cofaigh, C. & Evans, D. J. A. 2010c. A major ice drainage pathway of the last British-Irish ice sheet: the Tyne Gap, northern England. Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 354–370.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Evans, D. J. A., O'Cofaigh, C., Davies, B. J., Merritt, J. W., Huddart, D., Mitchell, W. A., Roberts, D. H. & Yorke, L. 2012. Glaciodynamics of the central sector of the last British-Irish ice sheet in Northern England. Earth-Science Reviews 111, 25–55.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. J., Roberts, D. H., Davies, B. J. & Evans, D. J. A. 2017. Deglaciation of the Forth and Tay palaeo-ice stream corridors, southern Scotland. Quaternary Newsletter 143, 26–29.Google Scholar
Long, D. & Skinner, A. C. 1985. Glacial meltwater channels in the northern isles of Shetland: comment. Scottish Journal of Geology 21, 222–224.Google Scholar
Lowe, J. J., Albert, A., Hardiman, M., MacLeod, A., Blockley, S. & Pyne-O'Donnell, S. 2008a. Tephrostratigraphical investigations of the basal sediment sequence at Loch Etteridge. In Palmer, A. P., Lowe, J. J. & Rose, J. (eds) The Quaternary of Glen Roy and vicinity: field guide, 60–73. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lowe, J. J., Rasmussen, S. O., Björk, S., Hoek, W. Z., Steffensen, J. P., Walker, M. J. C. & Yu, Z. C. & The INTIMATE Group 2008b. Synchronisation of palaeoenvironmental events in the North Atlantic region during The Last Termination: a revised protocol recommended by the INTIMATE group. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 6–17.Google Scholar
Lowe, J. & Walker, M. 2015. Reconstructing Quaternary environments. 3rd edn. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lukas, S. 2010. Evidence of an ice-marginal oscillation during ice-sheet deglaciation: the Shinness moraine. In Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide, 181–185. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lukas, S. & Bradwell, T. (eds) 2010. The Quaternary of Western Sutherland and adjacent areas: field guide. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Lumsden, G. I., Tulloch, W., Howells, M. F. & Davies, A. 1967. The geology of the neighbourhood of Langholm. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Sheet 11 (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Mackie, W. 1905. Some notes on the distribution of erratics over eastern Moray. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 8, 91–97.Google Scholar
Mangerud, J. 2004. Ice sheet limits in Norway and on the Norwegian continental shelf. In Ehlers, J. & Gibbard, P. L. (eds) Quaternary glaciations – extent and chronology. Part I: Europe. Developments in Quaternary Science 2, 271–294. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Mangerud, J., Gyllencreutz, R., Lohne, Ö. & Svendsen, J. I. 2011. Glacial history of Norway. In Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. & Hughes, P. D. (eds) Quaternary glaciations – extent and chronology. A closer look. Developments in Quaternary Science 15, 279–298. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
McCabe, A. M., Clark, P. U., Smith, D. E. & Dunlop, P. 2007a. A revised model for the last deglaciation of eastern Scotland. Journal of the Geological Society of London 164, 313–316.Google Scholar
McCabe, A. M., Clark, P. U., Clark, J. & Dunlop, P. 2007b. Radiocarbon constraints on readvances of the British-Irish ice sheet in the northern Irish Sea basin during the last deglaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 1204–1211.Google Scholar
McCabe, A. M. & Williams, G. D. 2012. Timing of the East Antrim coastal readvance: phase relationships between lowland Irish and upland Scottish ice sheets during the last glacial termination. Quaternary Science Reviews 58, 18–29.Google Scholar
McLeod, A., Palmer, A., Lowe, J. J., Rose, J., Bryant, C. & Merritt, J. W. 2011. Timing of glacier response to Younger Dryas climatic cooling in Scotland. Global and Planetary Change 79, 264–274.Google Scholar
McMillan, A. A., Hamblin, R. J. O. & Merritt, J. W. 2011a. A lithostratigraphical framework for onshore Quaternary and Neogene (Tertiary) superficial deposits of Great Britain and the Isle of Man. British Geological Survey Research Report RR/10/03.Google Scholar
McMillan, A. A., Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Golledge, N. R. 2011b. The Quaternary geology of the Solway. British Geological Survey Research Report RR/11/04.Google Scholar
McMillan, A. A. & Browne, M. A. E. 1983. Glaciotectonic structures at Bellshill, east end of Glasgow. Quaternary Newsletter 40, 1–6.Google Scholar
McMillan, A. A. & Merritt, J. W. 2012. A new Quaternary and Neogene lithostratigraphical framework for Great Britain and the Isle of Man. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 123, 679–691.Google Scholar
Menzies, J. 1976. The glacial geomorphology of Glasgow with particular reference to the drumlins. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK.Google Scholar
Menzies, J. 1981. Investigations into the Quaternary deposits and bedrock topography of central Glasgow. Scottish Journal of Geology 17, 155–168.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 1992. The high-level marine shell-bearing deposits of Clava, Inverness-shire, and their origin as glacial rafts. Quaternary Science Reviews 11, 759–777.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 1993. Allt Odhar. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 159–165. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 1999. The Quaternary geology of the Dalwhinnie District. British Geological Survey Technical Report WA/99/14R.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 2004a. The glacial stratigraphy along the southern margin of the Gaick Plateau. In Lukas, S., Merritt, J. W. & Mitchell, W. A. (eds) The Quaternary of the Central Grampian highlands: field guide, 58–67. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 2004b. The pattern of deglaciation across the Gaick Plateau. In Lukas, S., Merritt, J. W. & Mitchell, W. A. (eds) The Quaternary of the Central Grampian highlands: field guide, 133–138. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 2010. Evidence for a stillstand or minor glacial readvance at Powfoot, near Annan. In Livingstone, S. J., Evans, D. J. A. & Ó Cofaigh, C. (eds) The Quaternary of the Solway lowlands and Pennine escarpment: field guide, 109–112. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 2017a. The Beum a' Chlaidheimh Breach and the Dulnain-Findhorn divide. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 212–221. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. 2017b. The Allt Odhar (Moy) interstadial site. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 176–183. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Firth, C. R. 1995. Ice-proximal glaciomarine sedimentation and sea-level change in the inverness area, Scotland: a review of the deglaciation of a major ice stream of the British Late Devensian ice sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 289–329.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A., Connell, E. R., Hall, A. M. & Peacock, J. D. 2003. Cainozoic geology and landscape evolution of North-East Scotland. Memoir of the British Geological Survey (Scotland). Edinburgh: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Lukas, S. & Mitchell, W. A. 2004. Introduction. In Lukas, S., Merritt, J. W. & Mitchell, W. A. (eds) The Quaternary of the Central Grampian Highlands: field guide, 1–17. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A., Boston, C. M., Everest, J. D. & Merritt, J. E. 2013. An overview of main late Devensian glaciation of the central Grampian Highlands. In Boston, C. M., Lukas, S. & Merritt, J. W. (eds) The Quaternary of the Monadhliath mountains and the Great Glen: field guide, 25–40. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Akhurst, M. C., Wilkinson, I. P., Riding, J. B., Phillips, E. R., Smith, R. A., Finlayson, A. & Dean, M. T. 2014. The Late Pleistocene Afton Lodge clay formation, Ayrshire, Scotland: evidence for early to Middle Devensian climatic changes and Late Devensian onshore ice flow and rafting from the Firth of Clyde. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 125, 195–214.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Hall, A. M. 2017a. Middle to Late Devensian glaciation of north-east Scotland: implications for the north-eastern quadrant of the last British–Irish ice sheet. Journal of Quaternary Science 32, 276–294.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Firth, C. R. 2017b. An introduction to the history of glaciation and sea-level around Nairn and south of the Inner Moray Firth. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 28–53. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Firth, C. R. 2017c. Ardersier Peninsula and the Ardersier Silts Formation. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 62–76. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Finlayson, A. 2017d. Transverse ridges around Mosstowie, near Elgin, and elsewhere around the Inner Moray Firth. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 101–107. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Merritt, J. E. & Bradwell, T. 2017e. The glaciolacustrine and roches moutonnées sites at Dulnain Bridge. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 222–230. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W., Roberson, S. & Cooper, M. R. 2018. A critical review and re-investigation of the Pleistocene deposits between Cranfield point and Kilkeel, Northern Ireland: implications for regional sea-level models and glacial reconstructions of the Northern Irish Sea basin. Proceedings of the Geologists Association 129, 583–609.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Auton, C. A. 1993. Notes on exposures and natural sections in drift deposits occurring on Geological Sheet 84W (Fortrose), SE of Inverness, Scotland. British Geological Survey Technical Report WA/93/28R. 237pp.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Auton, C. A. 2000. An outline of the lithostratigraphy and depositional history of Quaternary deposits in the Sellafield district, west Cumbria. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society 53, 129–154.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Auton, C. A. 2017. The Dalcharn Interglacial site. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 132–144. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Connell, E. R. 2000a. Oldmill Quarry. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 68–71. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Connell, E. R. 2000b. The Ardglassie rafts. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 75–78. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Firth, C. R. 2017. Alturlie point and the Alturlie gravels formation. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 54–61. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Peacock, J. D. 2000. Glacial meltwater channels in Banffshire and Buchan. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 46–48. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Phillips, E. R. 2010. Plumpe farm section: stratigraphic evidence for the Scottish readvance. In Livingstone, S. J., Evans, D. J. A. & Ó Cofaigh, C. (eds) The Quaternary of the Solway lowlands and Pennine escarpment: field guide, 104–108. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Merritt, J. W. & Phillips, E. R. 2017. The glacial rafts at Clava. In Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Phillips, E. R. (eds) The Quaternary around Nairn and the Inverness Firth, Scotland: field guide, 145–168. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Miller, G. H., Jull, A. J. T., Linick, T., Sutherland, D., Sejrup, H. P., Brigham, J. K., Bowen, D. Q. & Mangerud, J. 1987. Racemization-derived late Devensian temperature reduction in Scotland. Nature 326, 593–595.Google Scholar
Milne-Home, D. 1881. V. On the glaciation of the Shetlands. Geological Magazine (Decade II) 8, 205–212.Google Scholar
Mitchell, W. A. 2008. Quaternary geology of part of the Kale Water catchment, Western Cheviot Hills, southern Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 44, 51–63.Google Scholar
Mitchell, W. A. 2013. Glaciation and Quaternary evolution. In Waltham, A. & Lowe, D. (eds) Caves and karst of the Yorkshire dales, 29–64. Nottingham: British Cave Research Association.Google Scholar
Mykura, W. & Phemister, J. 1976. The geology of Western Shetland. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
NGRIP Members 2004. High-resolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial; period. Nature 431, 147–151.Google Scholar
Nickless, E. F. P., Aitken, A. M. & McMillan, A. A. 1978. The Sand and Gravel Resources of the Country around Darvel, Strathclyde. Description of Parts of 1:20,000 Sheets NS 53, 54, 63 & 64. Mineral Assessment Report 35. London: Institute of Geological Sciences, HMSO.Google Scholar
Omand, D. 1973. The glaciation of Caithness. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Strathclyde, UK.Google Scholar
Otvos, E. G. 2015 The last interglacial stage: definitions and marine highstand, North America and Eurasia. Quaternary International 383, 158–173.Google Scholar
Parthasarathy, A. & Blyth, G. H. 1959. The superficial deposits of the buried valley of the River Devon near Alva, Clackmannan, Scotland. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 70, 33–50.Google Scholar
Paterson, I. B., McAdam, A. D. & MacPherson, K. A. T. 1998. Geology of the Hamilton District. Memoir for 1:50,000 Geological Sheet 23W (Scotland). London: British Geological Survey, HMSO.Google Scholar
Patton, H., Hubbard, A., Andreassen, K., Auriac, A., Whitehouse, P. L., Stroeven, A. P., Shackleton, C., Winsbarrow, M., Heyman, J. & Hall, A. M. 2017. Deglaciation of the Eurasian ice sheet complex. Quaternary Science Reviews 169, 148–172.Google Scholar
Peach, B. N. 1909. Boulder distribution from Lennoxtown, Scotland. Geological Magazine 46, 26–31.Google Scholar
Peach, B. N. & Horne, J. 1879. The glaciation of the Shetland isles. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 35, 778–811.Google Scholar
Peach, B. N. & Horne, J. 1880. The glaciation of the Orkney Islands. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 36, 648–663.Google Scholar
Peach, B. N. & Horne, J. 1881. The glaciation of Caithness. Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh 6, 316–352.Google Scholar
Peach, B. N. & Horne, J. 1893. On the occurrence of shelly boulder clay in North Ronaldshay, Orkney. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 6, 309–313.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1970. Some aspects of the glacial geology of west Inverness-shire. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain 33, 43–56.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1971. Marine shell radiocarbon dates and the chronology of deglaciation in western Scotland. Nature Physical Science 230, 43–45.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1981. Report and excursion guide – Lewis and Harris. Quaternary Newsletter 35, 45–54.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1984. Quaternary geology of the Outer Hebrides. Report of the British Geological Survey 16, 1–26.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1995. Late Devensian to early Holocene palaeoenvironmental changes in the Viking Bank area, northern North Sea. Quaternary Science Reviews 14, 1029–1042.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 1999. The pre-Windermere Interstadial (Late Devensian) raised marine strata of eastern Scotland and their macrofauna: a review. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 1655–1680.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 2000a. A comment on the faunas from the Whitehills Glacigenic Formation. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 44–45. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 2000b. A glaciated pavement and crossing striations between Fraserburgh and Rattray Head. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 56. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 2003. Late Quaternary sea level change and raised marine deposits of the Western Highland Boundary. A) The deglaciation of the Lower Clyde Valley: a brief review. In Evans, D. J. A. (ed.) The Quaternary of the Western Highland Boundary: field guide, 30–41. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. 2008. Late Devensian palaeoenvironmental changes in the sea area adjacent to Islay, SW Scotland: implications for the deglacial history of the island. Scottish Journal of Geology 44, 183–190.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D., Berridge, N. G., Harris, A. L. & May, F. 1968. The geology of the Elgin district. Memoir of the Geological Survey, Sheet 95 (Scotland). Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D., Graham, D. K., Robinson, J. E. & Wilkinson, I. 1977. Evolution and chronology of Lateglacial marine environments at Lochgilphead, Scotland. In Gray, J. M. & Lowe, J. J. (eds) Studies in the Scottish Lateglacial environment, 83–100. Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D., Armstrong, M., Browne, M. A. E. & Stoker, M. S. 2007. Discussion on a revised model for the last deglaciation of eastern Scotland. Journal of the Geological Society of London 164, 1261–1263.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. & Connell, E. R. 2000. Glacial lakes in the valleys of the North Ugie and South Ugie. In Merritt, J. W., Connell, E. R. & Bridgland, D. R. (eds) The Quaternary of the Banffshire coast and Buchan: field guide, 49–52. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. & Everest, J. D. 2016. Pre-Late Devensian high-Arctic marine deposits in SW Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 46, 89–92.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. & Merritt, J. W. 1997. Glacigenic rafting at Castle Hill, Gardenstown, and its significance for the glacial history of northern Banffshire, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 12, 283–294.Google Scholar
Peacock, J. D. & Merritt, J. W. 2000. Glacial deposits at the Boyne Limestone Quarry, Portsoy, and the late-Quaternary history of coastal Banffshire. Journal of Quaternary Science 15, 543–555.Google Scholar
Peters, C., Walden, J. & Austin, W. E. N. 2008. Magnetic signature of European margin sediments: provenance of ice-rafted debris and the climatic response of the British ice sheet during Marine Isotope Stages 2 and 3. Journal of Geophysical Research – Earth Surface 113, F03007.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R., Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A. & Golledge, N. R. 2007. Microstructures in subglacial and proglacial sediments: understanding faults, folds and fabrics, and the influence of water on the style of deformation. Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 1499–1528.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R., Everest, J. & Diaz-Doce, D. 2009. Bedrock controls on subglacial distribution and geomorphological process: evidence from the Late Devensian Irish Sea ice stream. Sedimentary Geology 232, 98–118.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R., Hodgson, D. M. & Emery, A. R. 2017. The Quaternary geology of the North Sea basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 32, 117–126.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R. & Auton, C. A. 2000. Micromorphological evidence for polyphase deformation of glaciolacustrine sediments from Strathspey, Scotland. In Maltman, A. J., Hubbard, B. & Hambrey, M. J. (eds) Deformation of glacial materials. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 176, 279–292.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R. & Auton, C. A. 2013. Evidence for active ice retreat and ice-dammed lake formation during deglaciation at Raitts Burn. In Boston, C. M., Lukas, S. & Merritt, J. W. (eds) The Quaternary of the Monadhliath Mountains and the Great Glen: field guide, 153–164. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Phillips, E. R. & Merritt, J. W. 2008. Evidence for multiphase water-escape during rafting of shelly marine sediments at Clava, Inverness-shire, NE Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 988–1011.Google Scholar
Phillips, W. M., Hall, A. M., Mottram, R., Fifield, L. K. & Sugden, D. E. 2006. Cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al exposure ages of tors and erratics, Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland: timescales for the development of a classic landscape of selective linear glacial erosion. Geomorphology 73, 222–245.Google Scholar
Phillips, W. M., Hall, A. M., Ballantyne, C. K., Binnie, S., Kubik, P. K. & Freeman, S. 2008. Extent of the last ice sheet in northern Scotland tested with cosmogenic 10Be exposure ages. Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 101–107.Google Scholar
Porter, S. C. 1989. Some geological implications of average Quaternary glacial conditions. Quaternary Research 32, 245–261.Google Scholar
Price, R. J. 1975. The glaciation of west central Scotland – a review. Scottish Geographical Magazine 91, 134–145.Google Scholar
Price, R. J. 1983. Scotland's environment during the last 30,000 years. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rae, D. A. 1976. Aspects of glaciation in Orkney. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Liverpool, UK.Google Scholar
Railsback, L. B., Gibbard, P. L., Head, M. J., Voarintsoa, N. R. G. & Toucanne, S. 2015. An optimized scheme of lettered marine isotope substages for the last 1.0 million years, and the climatostratigraphic nature of isotope stages and substages. Quaternary Science Reviews 111, 94–106.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S. O., Bigler, M., Blockley, S. P., Blunier, T., Buchardt, S. L., Clausen, H. B., Cvijanovic, I., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S. J., Fischer, H., Gkinis, V., Guillevic, M., Hoek, W. Z., Lowe, J. J., Pedro, J. B., Popp, T., Seierstad, I. K., Steffensen, J. P., Svensson, A. M., Vallelonga, P., Vinther, B. M., Walker, M. J. C., Wheatley, J. J. & Winstrup, M. 2014. A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the last glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 106, 14–28.Google Scholar
Read, H. H. 1923. The geology of the country around Banff, Huntly and Turriff (Lower Banffshire and North-west Aberdeenshire). Memoir of the Geological Survey, Scotland, Sheets 86 and 96. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P. M., Guilderson, T. P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T. J., Hoffmann, D. L., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kaiser, K. F., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Niu, M., Reimer, R. W., Richards, D. A., Scott, E. M., Southon, J. R., Staff, R. A., Turney, C. S. M. & van der Plicht, J. 2013. Intcal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55, 1869–1887.Google Scholar
Rolfe, W. D. I. 1966. Woolly rhinoceros from the Scottish Pleistocene. Scottish Journal of Geology 2, 253–258.Google Scholar
Romans, J. C. C., Stevens, J. H. & Robertson, I. 1966. Alpine soils of north-east Scotland. Journal of Soil Science 17, 184–199.Google Scholar
Rose, J. 1981. Field guide to the Quaternary geology of the south-eastern part of the Loch Lomond basin. Proceedings of the Geological Society of Glasgow , 12–28.Google Scholar
Rose, J. 1987. Drumlins as part of a glacier bedform continuum. In Menzies, J. & Rose, J. (eds) Drumlin symposium, 103–116. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Rose, J. 1989. Stadial type sections in the British Quaternary. In Rose, J. & Schlüchter, C. (eds) Quaternary type sections: imagination or reality, 45–67. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Rose, J. 2003. Geilston: Lateglacial and Holocene sea level change. In Evans, D. J. A. (ed.) The Quaternary of the Western Highland Boundary: field guide, 30–41. London: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Rose, J., Lowe, J. J. & Switsur, R. 1988. A radiocarbon date on plant detritus beneath till from the type area of the Loch Lomond readvance. Scottish Journal of Geology 24, 113–124.Google Scholar
Rose, J. & Letzer, J. M. 1977. Superimposed drumlins. Journal of Glaciology 18, 471–480.Google Scholar
Rose, J. & Smith, M. J. 2008. Glacial geomorphological maps of the Glasgow region, western central Scotland. Journal of Maps 4, 399–416.Google Scholar
Ross, H. M. 1996. The last glaciation of Shetland. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of St. Andrews, UK.Google Scholar
Ross, H. M., Hall, A. M. & Gordon, J. E. 1993. Patterns of ice flow on Shetland. In Birnie, J., Gordon, J. E., Bennett, K. D. & Hall, A. M. (eds) The Quaternary of Shetland: field guide, 9–14. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Salt, K. E. & Evans, D. J. A. 2004. Scottish landform example 32: superimposed subglacially streamlined landforms of southwest Scotland. Scottish Geographical Journal 120, 133–147.Google Scholar
Scourse, J. D., Haapaniemi, A. I., Colmenero-Hidalgo, E., Peck, V. L., Hall, I. R., Austin, W. E. N., Knutz, P. C. & Zahn, R. 2009. Growth, dynamics and deglaciation of the last British-Irish ice sheet: the deep-sea ice-rafted detritus record. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 3066–3084.Google Scholar
Sejrup, H. P., Nygard, A., Hall, A. M. & Haflidason, H. 2009. Middle and Late Weichselian (Devensian) glaciation history of south-western Norway, North Sea and eastern UK. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 370–380.Google Scholar
Sejrup, H. P., Hjelstuen, B. O., Nygård, A., Haflidason, H. & Mardal, I. 2015. Late Devensian ice-marginal features in the central North Sea – processes and chronology. Boreas 44, 1–13.Google Scholar
Sejrup, H. P., Clark, C. D. & Hjelstuen, B. O. 2016. Rapid ice sheet retreat triggered by ice stream debuttressing: evidence from the North Sea. Geology 44, 355–358.Google Scholar
Selby, I. C. 1987. Glaciated shorelines in Barra and Vatersay. Quaternary Newsletter 53, 16–22.Google Scholar
Shackleton, N. J. 1987. Oxygen isotopes, ice volume and sea level. Quaternary Science Reviews 6, 183–190.Google Scholar
Shakesby, R. A. 1978. Dispersal of glacial erratics from Lennoxtown, Stirlingshire. Scottish Journal of Geology 14, 81–86.Google Scholar
Shaw, A. J. & Merritt, J. W. 1981. The sand and gravel resources of the country around Biggar, Strathclyde Region: Description of 1:25,000 sheets NS93 and NT03 and parts of NS92 and NT02. Mineral Assessment Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences 95. 92pp.Google Scholar
Shennan, I., Bradley, S., Milne, G., Brooks, A. J., Bassett, S., Hamilton, S., Hilier, C., Hunter, A. & Woodal, R. 2006. Relative sea level changes, glacial isostatic modelling and ice sheet reconstructions from the British Isles since the Last Glacial Maximum. Journal of Quaternary Science 21, 585–599.Google Scholar
Simpson, S. 1948. The glacial deposits of Tullos and Bay of Nigg, Aberdeen. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 61, 687–687.Google Scholar
Simpson, S. 1955. A re-interpretation of the drifts of north-east Scotland. Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society 16, 189–199.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1963. The Perth Readvance in central Scotland. Part I. Scottish Geographical Magazine 79, 151–163.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1964. The Perth Readvance in central Scotland. Part II. Scottish Geographical Magazine 80, 28–36.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1967a. The evolution of Scotland's scenery. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1967b. Glacial stages and radiocarbon dates in Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology 3, 175–181.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1980. The glaciation of the Outer Hebrides. Scottish Journal of Geology 16, 81–84.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. 1983. The Quaternary geomorphology of the Inner Hebrides: a review and reassessment. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 94, 165–175.Google Scholar
Sissons, J. B. & Smith, D. E. 1965. Raised shorelines associated with the Perth Readvance in the Forth Valley and their relation to glacial isostasy. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 66, 143–168.Google Scholar
Small, D., Benetti, S., Dove, D., Ballantyne, C. K., Fabel, D., Clark, C. D., Gheorghiu, D. M., Newall, J. & Xu, S. 2017. Cosmogenic exposure age constraints on deglaciation and flow behaviour of a marine-based ice stream in western Scotland, 21–16ka. Quaternary Science Reviews 167, 30–46.Google Scholar
Smith, D. E., Barlow, N., Bradley, S., Firth, C. R., Hall, A. M., Jordan, C. J. & Long, D. 2018. Quaternary sea level change in Scotland. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. DOI: 10.1017/S1755691017000469.Google Scholar
Stewart, H. A., Carter, G. D. O., Dove, D., Stewart, M. A., Green, S. L., Cooper, R. M., Cotterill, C. J. & Gafeira, J. 2019. The Quaternary stratigraphy of Scotland: the offshore record. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Stewart, M. 1933. Notes on the geology of Sula Sgeir and the Flannan Islands. Geological Magazine 70, 110–116.Google Scholar
Stoker, M. S., Hitchen, K. & Graham, C. C. 1993. United Kingdom offshore regional report: the geology of the Hebrides and the West Shetland shelves, and adjacent deep water areas. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Stoker, M. S., Bradwell, T., Howe, J. A., Wilkinson, I. P. & McIntyre, K. 2009. Lateglacial ice-cap dynamics in NW Scotland: evidence from the fjords of the Summer isles region. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 3161–3184.Google Scholar
Stoker, M. S. & Bradwell, T. 2005. The Minch palaeo-ice stream, NW sector of the British-Irish ice sheet. Journal of the Geological Society, London 163, 425–428.Google Scholar
Stone, P., Millward, D., Young, B., Merritt, J. W., Clarke, S. M., McCormac, M. & Lawrence, D. J. D. 2010 British regional geology: North England. 5th edn. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M. & Grootes, P. M. 2000. GISP2 oxygen isotope ratios. Quaternary Research 53, 277–284.Google Scholar
Sugden, D. E. 1968. The selectivity of glacial erosion in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 45, 79–92.Google Scholar
Sugden, D. E. 1970. Landforms of deglaciation in the Cairngorm Mountains. Transactions of the British Institute of Geographers 51, 201–219.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1981. The high-level marine shell beds of Scotland and the build-up of the last Scottish ice sheet. Boreas 10, 247–254.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1984. The Quaternary deposits and landforms of Scotland and the neighbouring shelves – a review. Quaternary Science Reviews 3, 157–254.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993a. Muckle Head and Selwick. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 74–76. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993b. North-west Highlands: introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 101–103. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993c. Teindland Quarry. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 236–240. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993d. Castle Hill. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 240–242. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993e. Eastern Grampian Highlands. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 257–259. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993f. Tangy Glen. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 310–313. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993g. Nith Bridge. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 541–542. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993h. Port Logan. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 593–594. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993i. Eastern Highland Boundary. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 477–479. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1993j. Fife and Lower Tay. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 509–511. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. 1999. Scotland. In Bowen, D. Q. (ed.) A revised correlation of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles. Special Report of the Geological Society of London No. 23, 99–114.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G., Ballantyne, C. K. & Walker, M. J. C. 1982. A note on the Quaternary deposits and landforms of St Kilda. Quaternary Newsletter 37, 1–5.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G., Ballantyne, C. K. & Walker, M. J. C. 1984. Late Quaternary glaciation and environmental change on St. Kilda, Scotland, and their palaeoclimatic significance. Boreas 13, 261–272.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993a. The Quaternary in Scotland. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 11–47. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993b. The Shetland Islands. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 51–54. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993c. Inverness area. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 149–152. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993d. North-east Scotland. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 213–216. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Gordon, J. E. 1993e. Western Central Lowlands. Introduction. In Gordon, J. E. & Sutherland, D. G. (eds) Quaternary of Scotland. The Geological Conservation Review Series No. 6, 535–538. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Sutherland, D. G. & Walker, M. J. C. 1984. A late Devensian ice-free area and possible interglacial site on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland. Nature 309, 701–703.Google Scholar
Synge, F. M. 1956. The glaciation of north-east Scotland. Scottish Geographical Magazine 72, 129–143.Google Scholar
Synge, F. M. 1963. The Quaternary succession around Aberdeen, North-East Scotland. Report on the 6th International congress on the Quaternary, Warsaw, 1961, Vol. 3, geomorphological section, 353–361. Łódź: International Union for Quaternary Research.Google Scholar
Synge, F. M. & Stephens, N. 1966. Late- and post-glacial shorelines and ice limits in Argyll and north-east Ulster. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 39, 101–125.Google Scholar
Tait, D. 1912. On a large glacially transported mass of Lower Cretaceous rock at Leavad in the county of Caithness. Transactions of the Geological Society of Edinburgh 10, 1–9.Google Scholar
Thierens, M., Pirlet, H., Colin, C., Latruwe, K., Vanhaecke, F., Lee, J. R., Stuut, J. B., Titschack, J., Huvenne, V. A. I., Dorschel, B., Wheeler, A. J. & Henriet, J. P. 2012. Ice-rafting from the British-Irish ice sheet since the earliest Pleistocene (2.6 million years ago): implications for long-term mid-latitudinal ice-sheet growth in the North Atlantic region. Quaternary Science Reviews 44, 229–240.Google Scholar
Thomas, G. S. P. & Montague, E. 1997. The morphology, stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Carstairs Esker, Scotland, UK. Quaternary Science Reviews 16, 661–674.Google Scholar
Toucanne, S., Soulet, G., Freslon, N., Silva Jacinto, R., Dennielou, B., Zaragosi, S., Eynaud, F., Bourillet, J.-F. & Bayon, G. 2015. Millennial-scale fluctuations of the European ice sheet at the end of the last glacial, and their potential impact on global climate. Quaternary Science Reviews 123, 113–133.Google Scholar
Trotter, F. M. 1929. The glaciation of the Eastern Edenside, the Alston Block, and the Carlisle Plain. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 85, 549–612.Google Scholar
Trotter, F. M., Hollingworth, S. E., Eastwood, T. & Rose, W. C. C. 1937. Gosforth District. Geological Survey Memoir, England and Wales, Sheet 37. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Trotter, F. M. & Hollingworth, S. E. 1932a. The glacial sequence in the North of England. Geological Magazine 69, 374–380.Google Scholar
Trotter, F. M. & Hollingworth, S. E. 1932b. The geology of the Brampton district. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Sheet 18 (England and Wales). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Turner, A. J., Woodward, J., Dunning, S. A., Shine, A. J., Stokes, C. R. & Ò Cofaigh, C. 2012. Geophysical surveys of the sediments of Loch Ness, Scotland: implications for the deglaciation of the Moray Firth Ice Stream, British-Irish ice sheet. Journal of Quaternary Science 27, 221–232.Google Scholar
Valen, V., Larsen, E. & Mangerud, J. 1995. High-resolution paleomagnetic correlation of Middle Weichselian ice-dammed lake sediments in two coastal caves, western Norway. Boreas 24, 141–153.Google Scholar
Valen, V., Mangerud, J., Larsen, E. & Hufthammer, A. K. 1996. Sedimentology and stratigraphy in the cave Hamnsundhelleren, western Norway. Journal of Quaternary Science 11, 185–201.Google Scholar
von Weymarn, J. 1979. A new concept of glaciation in Lewis and Harris, Outer Hebrides. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 77B, 97–105.Google Scholar
von Weymarn, J. & Edwards, K. J. 1973. Interstadial site on the island of Lewis, Scotland. Nature 246, 473–474.Google Scholar
Wager, L. 1953. The extent of glaciation in the island of St. Kilda. Geological Magazine 90, 177–181.Google Scholar
Walker, M. J. C. 1984. A pollen diagram from St Kilda, Outer Hebrides, Scotland. New Phytologist 97, 99–113.Google Scholar
Walker, M. J. C., Merritt, J. W., Auton, C. A., Coope, G. R., Field, M. H., Heijnis, H. & Taylor, B. J. 1992. Allt Odhar and Dalcharn: two pre-Late Devensian (Late Weichselian) sites in northern Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 7, 69–86.Google Scholar
Whittington, G. 1990. The Dalcharn interglacial site, near Cawdor, Nairnshire. Results of pollen analysis on the Dalcharn Biogenic member. In Auton, C. A., Firth, C. R. & Merritt, J. W. (eds) Beauly to Nairn: field guide, 74–96. Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association.Google Scholar
Whittington, G. 1994. Bruckenthalia spiculifolia (Salisb.) Reichenb. (Ericaceae) in the Late Quaternary of Western Europe. Quaternary Science Reviews 13, 761–768.Google Scholar
Whittington, G., Hall, A. M. & Jarvis, J. 1993. A pre-Late Devensian pollen site at Camp Fauld, Buchan, north-east Scotland. New Phytologist 125, 867–874.Google Scholar
Whittington, G., Connell, E. R., Coope, G. R., Edwards, K. J., Hall, A. M., Hulme, P. D. & Jarvis, J. 1998. Devensian organic interstadial deposits and glacier extent in Buchan, Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 13, 309–324.Google Scholar
Whittington, G. & Hall, A. M. 2002. The Tolsta Interstadial, Scotland: correlation with D-O cycles GI-8 to GI-5? Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 901–915.Google Scholar
Wilson, G. V., Edwards, W., Knox, J., Jones, R. C. B. & Stephens, J. V. 1935. The geology of the Orkneys. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1974. Ice wastage in the Glenmore, Upper Spey Valley, Inverness-shire. Scottish Journal of Geology 10, 147–157.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1975a. Ice wastage in Glen Feshie, Inverness-shire. Scottish Geographical Magazine 91, 91–101.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1975b. A re-interpretation of the deglaciation of Abernethy Forest, Inverness-shire. Scottish Journal of Geology 11, 193–205.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1977a. Glacial geomorphology of the Aviemore-Loch Garten area, Strathspey, Inverness-shire. Geography (Sheffield, England) 62, 25–34.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1977b. Glacial geomorphology of the Dulnain valley, Inverness-shire. Scottish Journal of Geology 13, 59–74.Google Scholar
Young, J. A. T. 1978. The landforms of Upper Strathspey. Scottish Geographical Magazine 94, 76–94.Google Scholar