Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T19:52:05.915Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

IMAGINING A BETTER WORLD:

Rap Music Skepticism and the Civic Activism of Young African Americans

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 April 2019

Lakeyta M. Bonnette-Bailey
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, Georgia State University
Ray Block Jr.*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science and African American & Africana Studies Program, University of Kentucky
Harwood K. McClerking
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, University of Michigan
*
*Corresponding author: Associate Professor Ray Block, Jr. African American and Africana Studies Program and Department of Political Science, 1655 Patterson Office Tower, Lexington KY 40506-0027. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Despite a recent increase in research on its sociopolitical implications, many questions regarding rap music’s influence on mass-level participation remain unanswered. We consider the possibility that “imagining a better world” (measured here as the degree to which young African Americans are critical of the music’s negative messages) can correlate with a desire to “build a better world” (operationalized as an individual’s level of political participation). Evidence from the Black Youth Project (BYP)’s Youth Culture Survey (Cohen 2005) demonstrates that rap critique exerts a conditional impact on non-voting forms of activism. Rap critique enhances heavy consumers’ civic engagement, but this relationship does not occur among Blacks who consume the music infrequently. By demonstrating rap’s politicizing power and contradicting certain criticisms of Hip Hop culture, our research celebrates the possibilities of Black youth and Black music.

Type
State of the Art
Copyright
Copyright © Hutchins Center for African and African American Research 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achen, Christopher H. (1986). The Statistical Analysis of Quasi-Experiments. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Adams, Terri M., and Fuller, Douglas B. (2006). The Words Have Changed but the Ideology Remains the Same: Misogynistic Lyrics in Rap Music. Journal of Black Studies, 36(6): 938957.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alex-Assensoh, Yvette and Assensoh, A. B. (2001). Inner City Contexts, Church Attendance, and African American Political Participation. Journal of Politics, 63: 886901.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Richard L. (1993). Conceptual Models of an African-American Belief System: A Program of Research. In Berry, Gordon L. and Asamen, Joy K. (Eds.), Children & Television: Images in a Sociocultural World, pp. 155176. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Richard L. (2001). The Concept of Self: A Study of Black Identity and Self-Esteem. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
Almond, Gabriel, and Verba, Sydney (1963). The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D. (2004). Treatment Effect Heterogeneity in Theory and Practice. The Economic Journal, 111(March): C52C83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, Edward G. (2001). Gangsta Misogyny: A Content Analysis of Portrayals of Violence against Women in Rap Music, 1987–1993. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 8(2): 96126.Google Scholar
Asante, Molefi K. (2008). It’s Bigger than Hip Hop: The Rise of the Post-Hip Hop Generation. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
Bambaataa, Afrika (1996). Afrika Bambaataa’s Definition of Hip Hop? Davy D’s Hip Hop Corner <http://www.daveyd.com/whatisbam.html> (accessed March 15, 2015).+(accessed+March+15,+2015).>Google Scholar
Barnes, Sandra L. (2008). Religion and Rap Music: An Analysis of Black Church Usage. Review of Religious Research, 49(3): 319338.Google Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. (2010). The Study of Electoral Behavior. In Leighley, Jan E. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of American Elections and Political Behavior, pp. 239261. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bennett, Stephen Earl (1986). Apathy in America, 1960–1984: Causes and Consequences of Citizen Political Indifference. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers.Google Scholar
Berger, Peter (1967). The Sacred Canopy. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Blanchard, Becky (1999). The Social Significance of Rap & Hip-Hop Culture. Edge: Ethics of Development in A Global Environment, July 26, 1999. <https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/poverty_prejudice/mediarace/socialsignificance.htm> (accessed August 27, 2017).+(accessed+August+27,+2017).>Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr. (2010). Some Like it Hot: Toward A Political Climate Explanation of Racial Differences in Political Interest. In Philpot, Tasha and White, Ismail K. (Eds.), African-American Political Psychology: Identity, Opinion, and Action in the Post-Civil Rights Era, pp. 147156. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnette, Lakeyta M. (2015). Pulse of the People: Rap Music and Black Political Attitudes. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bork, Robert H. (1996). Slouching towards Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline. New York: Reagan Books.Google Scholar
Boyd, Todd (1994). Check Yo’ Self, Before You Wreck Yo’ Self: Variations on a Political Theme in Rap Music and Popular Culture. Public Culture, 7(1): 289312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, Todd (2002). The New H.N.I.C.: The Death of Civil Rights and the Reign of Hip Hop. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Boykin, Keith (2005). Beyond the Down Low: Sex, Lies, and Denial in Black America. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers.Google Scholar
Brady, Henry, Verba, Sidney, and Lehman Schlozman, Key (1995). Beyond SES: A Resource Model of Political Participation. American Political Science Review, 89(2): 271294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Graham K., and Mergoupis, Thano (2011). Treatment Interactions with Non-Experimental Data in Stata. Stata Journal, 11(4): 545555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Lehman Schlozman, Kay, and Verba, Sidney (2001). The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bynoe, Yvonne (2004). Stand and Deliver: Political Activism, Leadership, and Hip Hop culture. American Society for Training and Development.Google Scholar
Calhoun-Brown, Allison (1996). African American Churches and Political Mobilization: The Psychological Impact of Organizational Resources. Journal of Politics, 58(4): 935–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. (1963). Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs for Research. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.Google Scholar
Cannon, David T. (Ed.) (1999). Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Canon, David T., Schousen, Matthew M., and Sellers, Patrick J. (1996). The Supply Side of Congressional Redistricting: Race and Strategic Politicians, 1972–1992. Journal of Politics, 58(3): 846862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, David T., Schousen, Matthew M., and Sellers, Patrick J. (1999). The Supply-side Theory of Racial Redistricting. In Cannon, David T. (Ed.), Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts, pp. 93142. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cattaneo, Matias. D. (2010). Efficient Semiparametric Estimation of Multi-Valued Treatment Effects under Ignorability. Journal of Econometrics, 155(2): 138154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, Jason C. K., Thomas, Ayanna K., and Bulevich, John B. (2009). Recalling A Witnessed Event Increases Eyewitness Suggestibility: The Reversed Testing Effect. Psychological Science, 20(1): 6673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, Jeff (2005). Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: Picador.Google Scholar
Clay, Andreana (2012). The Hip-Hop Generation Fights Back: Youth, Activism and Post-Civil Rights Politics. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Cleary, Robert M. (1993). Rap Music and Its Political Connections: An Annotated Bibliography. Reference Services Review, 21(2): 7790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J. (2005). Black Youth Culture Survey. Chicago, IL: Black Youth Project. <http://www.blackyouthproject.com> (accessed July 17, 2014).+(accessed+July+17,+2014).>Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy (2008). Black Youth and Empowerment: Politics and Rap Music. Virginia C. Gildersleeve lecture series Race, Gender, Community & Rights: Celebrating 15 Years of Africana Studies at Barnard. <http://bcrw.barnard.edu/event/black-youth-and-empowerment-politics-and-rap-music/> (accessed August 2, 2015).+(accessed+August+2,+2015).>Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy (2010). Democracy Remixed: Black Youth and the Future of American Politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill (2006). From Black Power to Hip Hop: Racism, Nationalism, and Feminism. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Conrad, Kate, Dixon, Travis L., and Zhang, Yuanyuan (2009). Controversial Rap Themes, Gender Portrayals and Skin Tone Distortion: A Content Analysis of Rap Music Videos. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(1): 134156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosby, William H., and Poussaint, Alvin F. (2007). Come On People: On the Path from Victims to Victors. Nashvile, TN: Thomas Nelson Inc.Google Scholar
Craig, Stephen C., Niemi, Richard G., and Silver, Glenn E. (1990). Political Efficacy and Trust: A Report on the NES Pilot Study Items. Political Behavior, 12(3): 289314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. (1994). Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. (1999). Dis Beat Disrupts: Rap, Ideology, and Black Political Opinion. In Lamont, Michelle (Ed.), The Cultural Territories of Race: White and Black Boundaries, pp. 318342. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. (2001). Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dean, Terrence (2008). Hiding in Hip Hop: On the Down Low in the Entertainment Industry—from Music to Hollywood. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc.Google Scholar
Decker, Jeffrey Lewis (1993). The State of Rap: Time and Place in Hip Hop. Social Text, 34: 5384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Keeter, Scott (1996). What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Deterline, Kim, and Jones, Art (1994). Fear of a Rap Planet: Rappers Face Media Double Standard. FAIR: Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (March 1). <http://fair.org/extra-online-articles/fear-of-a-rap-planet/> (accessed March 11, 2015).+(accessed+March+11,+2015).>Google Scholar
Dill, Karen E., Gentile, Douglas A., Richter, William A., and Dill, Jody C. (2005). Violence, Sex, Race and Age in Popular Video Games: A Content Analysis. In Cole, Ellen and Daniel, Jessica Henderson (Eds.), Featuring Females: Feminist Analyses of the Media, pp. 115130. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, Travis L., and Brooks, TaKeshia (2002). Rap Music and Rap Attitudes: Controversial Themes, Psychological Effects, and Political Resistance. African American Research Perspectives, 8(2): 106116.Google Scholar
Dixon, Travis L., Zhang, Yuanyuan, and Conrad., Kate (2009). Self-Esteem, Misogyny, and Afrocentricity: An Examination of the Relationship between Rap Music Consumption and African American Perceptions. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 12: 345360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DuRant, Robert H., Rome, Ellen S., Rich, Michael, Allred S., Elizabeth, Emans, Jean, and Woods, Elizabeth R. (1997). Tobacco and Alcohol Use Behaviors Portrayed in Music Videos: A Content Analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 87(7): 11311135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyson, Michael Eric (2004). The Culture of Hip-Hop. That’s the Joint, 6168.Google Scholar
Dyson, Michael Eric (2005). Is Bill Cosby Right? Or Has the Black Middle Class Lost Its Mind. New York: Basic Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Dyson, Michael Eric (2007). Know What I Mean? Reflections on Hip-Hop. New York: Basic Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Elligan, Don (2004). Rap Therapy: A Practical Guide for Communicating with Youth through Rap Music. New York: Dafina Books.Google Scholar
Ember, Sydney (2017). This Is Not Fake News (But Don’t Go By the Byline). New York Times, April 3. <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/03/education/edlife/fake-news-and-media-literacy.html> (accessed October 12, 2017).+(accessed+October+12,+2017).>Google Scholar
Emerson, Rana A. (2002). ‘Where My Girls At?’ Negotiating Black Womanhood in Music Videos. Gender and Society, 16(1): 115135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emerson, Rana A. (2003). Stereotypes of Music Fans: Are Rap and Heavy Metal Fans a Danger to Themselves or Others? Journal of Media and Psychology, 8(3): 227.Google Scholar
Epstein, Jonathan S. (2016). Adolescents and Their Music: If It’s Too Loud, You’re Too Old. New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eshun, Eskow (2015). How Hip-Hop Style Critiques Society. BBC Culture, July 28. <http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20150728–how-hip-hop-style-critiques-society> (accessed August 27, 2017).+(accessed+August+27,+2017).>Google Scholar
Fernandes, Sujatha (2003). Fear of a Black Nation: Local Rappers, Transnational Crossings, and State Power in Contemporary Cuba. Anthropological Quarterly, 76(4): 575608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Steven E. (1985). Reciprocal Effects of Participation and Political Efficacy: A Panel Analysis. American Journal of Political Science, 891913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Steven E. (1985). Reciprocal Effects of Participation and Political Efficacy: A Panel Analysis. American Journal of Political Science, 891913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forman, Murray (2000). ‘Represent’: Race, Space and Place in Rap Music. Popular Music, 19(1): 6590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friesen, Bruce K., and Epstein, Jonathan S.. (1994). Rock ‘n’roll Ain’t noise pollution: Artistic conventions and tensions in the major subgenres of heavy metal music. Popular Music & Society, 18(3): 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galston, William A. (2001). Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education. Annual Review of Political Science, 4: 217234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gamson, William A. (1968). Power and Discontent. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.Google Scholar
Gamson, William A. (1971). Political Trust and Its Ramifications. In Abcarian, Gilbert and Soule, John W. (Eds.), Social Psychology and Political Behavior, pp. 4055. New York: Charles E. Merrill.Google Scholar
Gentile, Douglas A., and Lynch, Paul J., Linder, Jennifer Ruh, and Walsh, David A. (2004). The Effects of Violent Video Game Habits on Adolescent Hostility, Aggressive Behaviors, and School Performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1): 522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
George, Nelson (2005). Hip Hop America. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Green, Donald P. (2000). The Effects of Canvassing, Telephone Calls, and Direct Mail on Voter Turnout: A Field Experiment. American Political Science Review, 94(3): 653–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Green, Donald P., and Larimer, Christopher. (2010). An Experiment Testing the Relative Effectiveness of Encouraging Voter Participating by Inducing Feelings of Pride or Shame. Political Behavior, 32(3): 409422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giroux, Henry A. (1994). Doing Cultural Studies: Youth and the Challenge of Pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 64(3): 278309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giroux, Henry A. (1996). Fugitive Cultures: Race, Violence, and Youth. New York: Routeledge.Google Scholar
Glynn, Adam N., and Quinn, Kevin M. (2010). An Introduction to the Augmented Inverse Propensity Weighted Estimator. Political Analysis, 18(1): 3646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, William (2009). Models for Count Data with Endogenous Participation. Empirical Economics, 36(1): 133173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guo, Shenyang, and Fraser, Mark W. (2015). Propensity Score Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Gurin, Patricia, and Epps, Edgar E.. (1975). Black Consciousness, Identity and Achievement. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Gurin, Patricia, Gurin, Gerald, Lao, Rosina C., and Beattie., Muriel (1969). Internal-External Control in the Motivational Dynamics of Negroes. Journal of Social Issues, 25(3): 2953.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadley, Susan, and Yancy, George (Eds.) (2012). Therapeutic Uses of Rap and Hip Hop. New York: Taylor and Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggins, Bambi (2007). Laughing Mad: The Black Comic Persona in Post-soul America. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Hansen, Christina Hall (1995). Predicting Cognitive and Behavioral Effects of Gangsta Rap. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1 & 2): 4352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Frederick C. (1999). Something Within: Religion in African-American Political Activism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, Tammy, Yang, Zhao and Hardin, James (2012). Modelling Underdispersion Count Data with Generalized Poisson Regression. The Stata Journal, 12(4): 736747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris-Lacewell, Melissa (2004). Bibles, Barbershops, and BET: Everyday Talk and Black Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Heckman, James J. (1979). Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error. Econometrica, 47(1): 153161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemphill, Portia (2012). Culture Clash: Black Media, Political Attitudes, and Political Participation. Working Paper.Google Scholar
Henderson, Errol A. (1996). Black Nationalism and Rap Music. Journal of Black Studies, 26(3): 308339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hetherington, Marc J. (2005). Why Trust Matters: Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hill, Marc Lamont (2009). Scared Straight: Hip-Hop, Outing, and the Pedagogy of Queerness. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 31(1): 2954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, Elan C., and Jagers, Robert J. (2014). The Role of Sociopolitical Attitudes and Civic Education in the Civic Engagement of Black Youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(3): 460470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huffington Post Politics (2012). Politics and Rap Music. September 11. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W3Z8cSvpLlw> (accessed January 16, 2016).+(accessed+January+16,+2016).>Google Scholar
Irby, Decoteau J., and Petchauer, Emery. (2011). Hustlin’ Consciousness: Critical Education Using Hip-Hop Modes of Knowledge Distribution. In Porfilio, Brad J. and Viola, Michael J. (Eds.), Hip-Hop(e): The Cultural Practice and Critical Pedagogy of International Hip-Hop, pp. 302321. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.Google Scholar
Jay-Z. (2010). Decoded. New York: Spiegel and Grau.Google Scholar
Johnson, James D., Adams, Mike S., Ashurn, Leslie, and Reed, William (1995). Differential Gender Effects of Exposure to Rap Music on African American Adolescents’ Acceptance of Teen Dating Violence. Sex Roles, 33(7–8): 597605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, James D., Jackson, Lee Anderson, and Gatto, Leslie (1995). Violent Attitudes and Deferred Academic Aspirations: Deleterious Effects of Exposure to Rap Music. Basic and Applied Psychology, 16(1–2): 2741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, James D., Trawalter, Sophie, and Dovidio, John F. (2000). Converging Interracial Consequences of Exposure to Violent Rap Music on Stereotypical Attributions of Blacks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36(3): 233251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Kenneth (1997). Are Rap Videos More Violent? Style Differences and the Prevalence of Sex and Violence in the Age of MTV. Howard Journal of Communication, 8(4): 343356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kajikawa, Loren (2015). Sounding Race in Rap Songs. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kalof, Linda (1999). The Effects of Gender and Music Video Imagery on Sexual Attitudes. Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3): 378385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, Robin D. G. (1996). Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Kenski, Kate, and Stroud, Natalie Jomini (2006). Connections between Internet Use and Political Efficacy, Knowledge, and Participation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 50(2): 173192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keyes, Cheryl L. (2002). Rap Music and Street Consciousness. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Kistler, Michelle E., and Lee, Moon J.. (2009). Does Exposure to Sexual Hip-Hop Music Videos Influence the Sexual Attitudes of College Students? Mass Communication and Society, 13(1): 6786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitwana, Bakari (2002). The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African American Culture. New York: Basic Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Kitwana, Bakari (2004). The State of the Hip-Hop Generation: How Hip-Hop’s Cultural Movement is Evolving into Political Power. Diogenes, 51(3): 115120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koren, Oriana (2016). What We Really Mean When We Say “Woke.” Complex.com, June 28. <http://www.complex.com/life/2016/06/woke-meaning-origin> (accessed October 9, 2017).+(accessed+October+9,+2017).>Google Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia (2008). Rebellion in the Top Music Charts: Deviant Messages in Rap/Hip-Hop and Rock Music, 1993 and 2003. Journal of Media Psychology, 20(1): 1523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krims, Adam (2000). Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kubrin, Charis E. (2005). Gangstas, Thugs, and Hustlas: Identity and the Code of the Street in Rap Music. Social Problems, 52(3): 360378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladson-Billings, Gloria (1995). But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3): 159165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leach, Andrew (2008). ‘One Day It’ll All Make Sense’: Hip-Hop and Rap Resources for Music Librarians. Notes, 65(1): 937.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leighley, Jan E. (2001). Strength in Numbers? The Political Mobilization of Racial and Ethnic Minorities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lena, Jennifer C. (2006). Social Context and Musical Content of Rap Music, 1979–1995. Social Forces, 85(1): 479495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael, Bryman, Alan, and Liao, Tim Futing (Eds.) (2004). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddex, Matthew C. (2014). Raptivism: the Act of Hip Hop’s Counterpublic Sphere Forming into A Social Movement to Seize its Political Opportunities. PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University.Google Scholar
Martinez, Theresa A. (1994). Popular Music in the Classroom: Teaching Race, Class, and Gender with Popular Culture. Teaching Sociology, 22(3): 260265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClerking, Harwood K. (2008). Racial and Ethnic Gaps. In Beyond Red State, Blue State: Electoral Gaps in the Twenty-First Century American Electorate, Olson, Laura R. and Green, John C. (Eds.), pp. 1021. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
McClerking, Harwood K., and McDaniel, Eric L. (2005). Belonging and Doing: Membership in Black Political Churches and Political Participation. Political Psychology, 26(5): 721733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonnell, Judith (1992). Rap Music: Its Role as An Agent of Change. Popular Music and Society, 16(3): 89107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milbrath, Lester W., and Goel, M. L. (1977). Political Participation. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Miller, Arthur H., Gurin, Patricia and Gurin, Gerald (1978). “Electoral Implications of Group Identification and Consciousness: The Reproduction of a Concept.” Presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Tony (Ed.) (2001). Global Noise: Rap and Hip Hop Outside the USA. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Morrell, Michael E. (2003). Survey and Experimental Evidence for a Reliable and Valid Measure of Internal Political Efficacy. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67(4): 589602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Joan (1999). When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost: My Life as A Hip Hop Feminist. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Muller, Edward N. (1972). A Test of a Partial Theory of Potential for Political Violence. American Political Science Review, 66: 928–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemi, Richard G., Craig, Stephen C., and Mattei, Franco F.. (1991). Measuring internal political efficacy in the 1988 National Election Study. American Political Science Review, 85(4): 14071413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, George (1999). Hiphopamerica. New York: Penguin Putnam.Google Scholar
Nichols, Austin (2007). Causal Inference with Observational Data. Stata Journal, 7(4): 507541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G. (1999). Slouching Toward Bork: The Culture Wars and Self-Criticism in Hip Hop Music. Journal of Black Studies, 30(2): 164183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogbar Jeffrey, O. G. (2007). Hip Hop Revolution: The Culture and Politics of Rap. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press.Google Scholar
Olsen, Marvin E. (1970). Social and Political Participation of Blacks. American Sociological Review, 682697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oware, Matthew (2011). Brotherly Love: Homosociality and Black Masculinity in Gangsta Rap Music. Journal of African American Studies, 15(1): 2239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Opinion Research Center, Almond, Gabriel A., and Verba, Sidney. (1960). The Five Nation Study. Inter-University Consortium for Political Research.Google Scholar
Nelson, A. (2005). Rap music and the Stagolee Mythoform. Americana: The Journal of American Popular Culture, 4(1), http://www.americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/spring_2005/nelson.htm.Google Scholar
Paxton, Pamela, Kunovich, Sheri, and Hughes, Melanie M.. (2007). Gender in Politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 33(August): 263284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penney, Joel (2012). ‘We Don’t Wear Tight Clothes’: Gay Panic and Queer Style in Contemporary Hip Hop. Popular Music and Society, 35(3): 321332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, I. (2004). Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petchauer, Emery (2011). Knowing What’s Up and Learning What You’re Not Supposed to: Hip-Hip Collegians, Higher Education, and the Limits of Critical Consciousness. Journal of Black Studies, 42(5): 768790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, James Braxton (2007). The Hate U Gave (T.H.U.G.): Reflections on the Bigger Figures in Present Day Hip Hop Culture. In Frail Marcos, Anna M. (Ed.), Dialogue 2: Richard Wright’s Native Son, pp. 203224. Raleigh-Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Pinn, Anthony and Miller, Monica R. (Eds.) (2009). Hip Hop and Religion [Special issue]. Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 10(1): 1108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pough, Gwendolyn D. (2004). Check it While I Wreck It: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop, and The Public Sphere. Holliston, MA: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
Pough, Gwendolyn D. (2007). Home Girls Make Some Noise: A Hip Hop Feminism Anthology. Mira Loma, CA: Parker Publishing.Google Scholar
Powell, Catherine B. (1991). Rap Music: An Education with a Beat from the Street. Journal of Negro Education, 60(3): 245259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quandt, Richard (1958). The Estimation of Parameters of a Linear Regression System Obeying Two Separate Regimes. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 53(284): 873880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quandt, Richard (1972). A New Approach to Estimating Switching Regressions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 67(338): 306310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, Eithne (2004). Nuthin’ But A “G” Thang: The Culture and Commerce of Gangsta Rap. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Reckless, Walter C. (1967). The Crime Problem. New York: Meredith Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Reckless, Walter C. (1981). Containment Theory: An Attempt to Formulate a Middle-Range Theory of Crime. In. Barak-Glantz, Israel L. and Ronald Huff, C. (Eds.), Mad, the Bad, and the Different, pp. 6775. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Reckless, Walter C., Dinitz, Simon, and Ellen Murray, E. (1956). Self-Concept as an Insulator against Delinquency. American Sociological Review, 21(6): 744746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridenhour, Carlton (Chuck D), Jah, Yusuf (1997). Fight the Power: Race, Rap, and Reality. New York: Bantham Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.Google Scholar
Rose, Tricia (1989). Orality and Technology: Rap Music and Afro-American Culture Resistance. Popular Music and Society, 16(4): 3544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Tricia (1991). ‘Fear of a Black Planet’: Rap Music and Black Cultural Politics in the 1990s. Journal of Negro Education, 60(3): 276290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Trisha (1994). Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Rose, Tricia (2008). Hip Hop Wars: What We Talk About When We Talk About Hip Hop–and Why It Matters. New York: Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Rubin, Donald B. (1974). Estimating Causal Effects of Treatments in Randomized and Nonrandomized Studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66(5): 688701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saad, Megan (2016). Rise of the Raptivist: The Role Social Commentary Plays for Change. The Source, March 29. <http://thesource.com/2016/03/29/rise-of-the-raptivist-the-role-social-commentary-plays-for-change/> (accessed August 29, 2017).+(accessed+August+29,+2017).>Google Scholar
Sachs, Aaron Dickinson (2009). The Hip-Hopsploitation Film Cycle: Representing, Articulating, and Appropriating Hip-Hop Culture. PhD Dissertation, the University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Salaam, Mtume Ya. (1995). The Aesthetics of Rap. African American Review, 29(2): 303315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharpley-Whiting, Denean T. (2007). Pimps Up, Ho’s Down: Hip Hop’s Hold on Young Black Women. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Shingles, Richard D. (1981). Black Consciousness and Political Participation: The Missing Link. American Political Science Review, 75(1): 7691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shelton, Maria L. (1997). Can’t Touch This! Representations of the African American Female Body in Urban Rap Videos. Popular Music and Society, 21(3): 107116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shingles, Richard D. (1981). Black Consciousness and Political Participation: The Missing Link. American Political Science Review, 75(1): 7691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shusterman, Richard (1991). The Fine Art of Rap. New Literary History, 22(3): 613622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slovenz, Madeline. (1988). ‘Rock the House:’ Aesthetic Dimensions of Rap Music in New York City. New York Folklore, 14(3–4). <http://www.nyfolklore.org/pubs/nyf/nyf-14–3–4/rapmusic.html> (accessed March 9, 2015).Google Scholar
Spence, Lester K. (2011). Stare in the Darkness: The Limits of Hip-Hop and Black Politics. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stapleton, Katina R. (1998). From the Margins to Mainstream: The Political Power of Hip-Hop. Media Culture Society, 20(2): 219234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Rachel E. (2003). It’s Got A Nice Beat, But What about the Message? Journal of Black Studies, 33(5): 605622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, Julian, Asbridge, Mark, and Worley, Scot (2009). Listening to Rap: Cultures of Crime, Cultures of Resistance. Social Forces, 88(2): 693722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tate, Katherine (1991). Black Political Participation in the 1984 and 1988 Presidential Elections. American Political Science Review, 85(4): 11591176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tate, Katherine (1993). From Protest to Politics: The New Black Voters in American Elections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Timpone, Richard J. (1998). Structure, Behavior, and Voter Turnout in the United States. American Political Science Review, 92(1): 145158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timpone, Richard J. (2002). Estimating Aggregate Policy Reform Effects: New Baselines for Registration, Participation and Representation. Political Analysis, 10(2): 154177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Took, Kevin J., and Weiss, David S. (1994). The Relationship between Heavy Metal and Rap Music and Adolescent Turmoil: Real or Artifact? Adolescence, 94(115): 613623.Google Scholar
Tulving, Endle, and Watkins, Michael J. (1974). On Negative Transfer: Effects of Testing One List on the Recall of Another. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(2): 181193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyson, Edgar H. (2002). Hip Hop Therapy: An Exploratory Study of a Rap Music Intervention with At-Risk and Delinquent Youth. Journal of Poetry Therapy, 15(3): 131144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyson, Edgar H. (2006). Rap-music Attitude and Perception Scale: A Validation Study. Research on Social Work Practice, 16(2): 211223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney and Norman Nie, N. H. (1972). Participation in America. Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Lehman Schlozman, Kay, and Brady, Henry (1995). Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Walton, Hanes (1985). Invisible Politics: Black Political Behavior. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Walton, Hanes, Smith, Robert C., and Wallace, Sherri L. (2017). American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. New York: Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, S. Craig (1998). Representing: Hip Hop Culture and the Production of Black Cinema. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Watkins, S. Craig. (2001). A Nation of Millions: Hip Hop Culture and the Legacy of Black Nationalism. The Communication Review, 4(3): 373398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, S. Craig (2005). Hip Hop Matters: Politics, Pop Culture, and the Struggle for the Soul of a Movement. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Wire Tap Staff (2003). Rap the Vote: Harnessing the Power of Hip Hop among Youth. Race, Poverty, & the Environment, 10(2): 6667.Google Scholar
Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Yousman, Bill (2003). Blackophillia and Blackophobia: White Youth, the Consumption of Rap Music, and White Supremacy. Communication Theory, 13(4): 366391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaller, John (1992). The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaller, John and Feldman, Stanley (1992). A Simple Theory of the Survey Response. American Journal of Political Science, 36(3): 579616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Yuanyuan, Dixon, Travis L., and Conrad, Kate (2009). Rap Music Videos and African American Women’s Body Image: The Moderating Role of Ethnic Identity. Journal of Communication, 59: 262278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Yuanyuan, Dixon, Travis L., and Conrad, Kate (2010). Female Body Image as a Function of Themes in Rap Music Videos: A Content Analysis. Sex Roles, 62(11–12): 787797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar