In 2004 the US Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, sponsored a National Summit on Campus Public Safety. The summit brought together various stakeholders including campus police and security officials, local police chiefs, college and university faculty and administrators, federal officials, students and parents, and community leaders to address the issues and complexities of campus safety. Delegates to the summit identified key issues in campus safety and security, which included establishing a national center on campus safety, balancing traditional open environments with the need to secure vulnerable sites, improving coordination with state and local police, reducing internal fragmentation, elevating professionalism, and increasing eligibility of campus police and security agencies to compete for federal law enforcement funds. Focus on “active shooters” on campus, resulting from the Virginia Tech incident, should not diminish attention placed on the broader, more prevalent safety and security issues facing the nation's educational campuses. Recommendations resulting from the summit called for establishing a national agenda on campus safety, formation of a national center on campus public safety, and increased opportunity for campus police and security agencies to compete for federal and state funds. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1(Suppl 1):S47–S50)

Background: To assess the state of health center integration into community preparedness, we undertook a national study of linkages between health centers and the emergency preparedness and response planning initiatives in their communities. The key objectives of this project were to gain a better understanding of existing linkages in a nationally representative sample of health centers, and identify health center demographic and experience factors that were associated with strong linkages.

Methods: The objectives of the study were to gain a baseline understanding of existing health center linkages to community emergency preparedness and response systems and to identify factors that were associated with strong linkages. A 60-item questionnaire was mailed to the population of health centers supported by the Health Resources and Services Administration’s Bureau of Primary Health Care in February 2005. Results were aggregated and a chi square analysis identified factors associated with stronger linkages.

Results: Overall performance on study-defined indicators of strong linkages was low: 34% had completed a hazard vulnerability analysis in collaboration with the community emergency management agency, 30% had their role documented in the community plan, and 24% participated in community-wide exercises. Stronger linkages were associated with experience responding to a disaster and a perception of high risk for experiencing a disaster.

Conclusions: The potential for health centers to participate in an integrated response is not fully realized, and their absence from community-based planning leaves an already vulnerable population at greater risk. Community planners should be encouraged to include health centers in planning and response and centers should receive more targeted resources for community integration. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:96–105)

Background: No definitive guidelines have been established in the United States for postexposure immunization and prophylaxis (PEP) to hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV, HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the event of a traumatic explosive event.

Methods: The American Medical Association’s Center for Public Health Preparedness and Disaster Response assembled a US-Israeli panel of experts, including representatives from disaster medicine, trauma surgery, occupational health, and infectious disease to determine guidelines for adult and pediatric victims following a traumatic explosive event. The panel reviewed the existing Israeli and United Kingdom protocols, previously published Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidance on occupational and nonoccupational exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV, before reaching consensus on preliminary guidelines for the United States.

Results: These guidelines recommend an age-appropriate dose and schedule for HBV PEP for individuals presenting from the scene with nonintact skin or mucous membrane exposure, and they also consider HCV and HIV testing in individuals presenting with possible nonintact skin or mucous membrane exposure. The guidelines do not recommend PEP for individuals presenting from the scene with possible superficial skin exposure.

Conclusions: These recommendations offer PEP guidance for bloodborne pathogens and are limited in scope. These recommendations do not address general wound PEP such as tetanus or the need for antibiotics. It is hoped that these guidelines will fill an urgent gap in preparedness until definitive, comprehensive guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are published. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:106–109)

Background: Reports that death notices in the Times-Picayune, the New Orleans daily newspaper, increased dramatically in 2006 prompted local health officials to determine whether death notice surveillance could serve as a valid alternative means to confirm suspicions of excess mortality requiring immediate preventive actions and intervention.

Methods: Monthly totals of death notices from the Times-Picayune were used to obtain frequency and proportion of deaths from January to June 2006. To validate this methodology the authors compared 2002 to 2003 monthly death frequency and proportions between death notices and top 10 causes of death from state vital statistics.

Results: A significant (47%) increase in proportion of deaths was seen compared with the known baseline population. From January to June 2006, there were on average 1317 deaths notices per month for a mortality rate of 91.37 deaths per 100,000 population, compared with a 2002–2004 average of 924 deaths per month for a mortality rate of 62.17 deaths per 100,000 population. Differences between 2002 and 2003 death notices and top 10 causes of death were insignificant and had high correlation.

Discussion: Death notices from local daily newspaper sources may serve as an alternative source of mortality information. Problems with delayed reporting, timely analysis, and interoperability between state and local health departments may be solved by the implementation of electronic death registration. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:15–20)

Eighteen national organizations, representing medicine, dentistry, nursing, hospital systems, public health, and emergency medical services, have worked together to create a framework for a national and regional disaster response health system that is scalable, multidisciplinary, and seamless, and based on an all-hazards approach. In July 2005 and June 2006 the American Medical Association (AMA) and the American Public Health Association (APHA) convened the AMA/APHA Linkages Leadership Summit, with funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention under the Terrorism Injuries: Information Dissemination and Exchange (TIIDE) program. As cofacilitators, James J. James, MD, DrPH, MHA, director of the AMA Center for Public Health Preparedness and Disaster Response, and Georges Benjamin, MD, FACP, FACEP(E), APHA executive director, met with leaders from 16 national medical, dental, hospital, nursing, hospital systems, public health, and emergency medical services organizations in Chicago (2005) and New Orleans (2006) to deliberate the deficiencies in the medical and public health disaster response system and the lack of necessary linkages between key components of this system: the health care, emergency medical services, and public health sectors. The goal was to reach consensus on a set of overarching recommendations to improve and sustain health system preparedness and to combine each organization's advocacy expertise and experience to promote a shared policy agenda. The full summit report contains 53 consensus-based recommendations, which will serve as the framework for a coordinated national agenda for strengthening health system preparedness for terrorism and other disasters. The 9 most overarching critical recommendations from the report are highlighted here. Although the summit report presents important perspectives on the subject of preparedness for public health emergencies, we must understand that preparedness is a process and that these recommendations must be reviewed and refined continually over time. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1(Suppl 1):S51–S54)

Introduction: On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall along the US Gulf Coast, resulting in the evacuation of >1.5 million people, including nearly 6000 physicians. This article examines the relocation patterns of physicians following the storm, determines the impact that the disaster had on their lives and practices, and identifies lessons learned.

Methods: An Internet-based survey was conducted among licensed physicians reporting addresses within Federal Emergency Management Agency–designated disaster zones in Louisiana and Mississippi. Descriptive data analysis was used to describe respondent characteristics. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify the factors associated with physician nonreturn to original practice. For those remaining relocated out of state, bivariate analysis with χ2 or Fisher exact test was used to determine factors associated with plans to return to original practice.

Results: A total of 312 eligible responses were collected. Among disaster zone respondents, 85.6% lived in Louisiana and 14.4% resided in Mississippi before the hurricane struck. By spring 2006, 75.6% (n = 236) of the respondents had returned to their original homes, whereas 24.4% (n = 76) remained displaced. Factors associated with nonreturn to original employment included family or general medicine practice (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.17–1.04; P = .059) and severe or complete damage to the workplace (OR 0.24, 95% CI 0.13–0.42; P < .001).

Conclusions: A sizeable proportion of physicians remain displaced after Hurricane Katrina, along with a lasting decrease in the number of physicians serving in the areas affected by the disaster. Programs designed to address identified physician needs in the aftermath of the storm may give confidence to displaced physicians to return. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:21–26)

The ability to monitor assistance, define humanitarian needs, and approach equity in the distribution of assistance has lagged behind the world’s growing commitment to responding to humanitarian emergencies. This article highlights relevant data sources to elucidate elements of an operational definition of humanitarian need. New and refined measures are proposed to assist in assessing the level of need among affected populations. An original measure that combines data on conflict and disasters to summarize the cumulative magnitude of 4 types of humanitarian threats is presented. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:110–116)

Background: Bombings are an increasing threat to the public's health. Descriptive studies of blast injuries have been published, but these injuries have not been studied using analytical epidemiological methods. This study assesses factors associated with fatality risk among individuals exposed to the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

Methods: Retrospective case-control analysis using multivariable logistic regression. Odds ratios (OR) of fatality are calculated among occupants of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building on April 19, 1995.

Results: Of the 348 occupants exposed, 163 (46.8%) were fatally injured. Fatality risk was greatest in the collapsed region of the building (adjusted OR 176.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 65.9–474.2). Age ≥40 was also associated with a significantly increased risk of fatality (OR 3.7, 95% CI 1.4–9.8). Among people found in the noncollapsed region of the building, employees' status compared to a visitor's or child's status was protective (OR 0.13, 95% CI 0.01–1.3)

Conclusions: Structural collapse is the most important risk factor for fatality in a building bombing. Progressive collapse may be prevented through more supportive building design. Protection of vulnerable building occupants can be improved by placement of relevant facilities in more structurally reinforced areas. Regular evacuation training of personnel and clear egress routes may also reduce fatality in a building bombing. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:27–33)

Global public health surveillance is critical for the identification and prevention of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. The World Health Organization recently released revised International Health Regulations (IHR) that serve as global legislation and provide guidelines for surveillance systems. The IHR aim to identify and prevent spread of these infectious diseases; however, there are some practical challenges that limit the usability of these regulations. IHR requires Member States to build necessary infrastructure for global surveillance, which may not be possible in underdeveloped countries. A large degree of freedom is given to each individual government and therefore different levels of reporting are common, with substantial emphasis on passive reporting. The IHR need to be enforceable and enforced without impinging on government autonomy or human rights. Unstable governments and developing countries require increased assistance in setting up and maintaining surveillance systems. This article addresses some challenges and potential solutions to the ability of national governments to adhere to the global health surveillance requirements detailed in the IHR. The authors review some practical challenges such as inadequate surveillance and reporting infrastructure, and legal enforcement and maintenance of individual human rights. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:117–121)

Botulism is a neuroparalytic disease caused by neurotoxins produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are among the most potent naturally occurring toxins and are a category A biological threat agent. The 7 toxin serotypes of BoNTs (serotypes A–G) have different toxicities, act through 3 different intracellular protein targets, and exhibit different durations of effect. Botulism may follow ingestion of food contaminated with BoNT, from toxin production of C botulinum present in the intestine or wounds, or from inhalation of aerosolized toxin. Intoxication classically presents as an acute, symmetrical, descending flaccid paralysis. Early diagnosis is important because antitoxin therapy is most effective when administered early. Confirmatory testing of botulism with BoNT assays or C botulinum cultures is time-consuming, and may be insensitive in the diagnosis of inhalational botulism and in as many as 32% of food-borne botulism cases. Therefore, the decision to initiate botulinum antitoxin therapy is primarily based on symptoms and physical examination findings that are consistent with botulism, with support of epidemiological history and electrophysiological testing. Modern clinical practice and antitoxin treatment has reduced botulism mortality rates from ∼60% to ≤10%. The pentavalent botulinum toxoid is an investigational product and has been used for more than 45 years in at-risk laboratory workers to protect against toxin serotypes A to E. Due to declining immunogenicity and potency of the pentavalent botulinum toxoid, novel vaccine candidates are being developed. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:122–134)

Background: When the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami suddenly hit unsuspecting coastal populations in Sri Lanka, it inflicted unprecedented devastation including 35,000 deaths and 500,000 people displaced. Evaluating the psychological impact of this natural disaster provides valuable insights into planning interventions and disaster preparedness.

Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 264 adult males and females ≥16 years old living in temporary shelters housing tsunami survivors at 6 months. Interviewer-administered structured interviews were conducted to measure posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its risk factors.

Results: The participation rate was 97%. Of the subjects, 56% met criteria for symptoms of PTSD, with females at 64% and males at 42%. Females had at least twice the risk of experiencing PTSD (odds ratio [OR] 2.27, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.37–3.76). This sex difference persisted after adjusting for age, marital status, being a parent, loss of family members, amount of social support, education level, and level of depression (OR 2.14, 95% CI 1.21–3.80). Depression was significantly associated with PTSD (OR 7.19, 95% CI 3.83–13.52).

Conclusions: In this directly affected population, a majority met criteria for PTSD, indicating a significant long-term public health burden. The findings also confirm that females are at much higher risk for PTSD than males, suggesting that special mental health efforts should be targeted at women exposed to trauma. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:34–43)

The incident command system provides an organizational structure at the agency, discipline, or jurisdiction level for effectively coordinating response and recovery efforts during most conventional disasters. This structure does not have the capacity or capability to manage the complexities of a large-scale health-related disaster, especially a pandemic, in which unprecedented decisions at every level (eg, surveillance, triage protocols, surge capacity, isolation, quarantine, health care staffing, deployment) are necessary to investigate, control, and prevent transmission of disease. Emerging concepts supporting a unified decision-making, coordination, and resource management system through a health-specific emergency operations center are addressed and the potential structure, function, roles, and responsibilities are described, including comparisons across countries with similar incident command systems. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:135–141)

Public health and the emergency care community must work together to effectively achieve a state of community-wide disaster preparedness. The identification of model communities with good working relationships between their emergency care community and public health agencies may provide useful information on establishing and strengthening relationships in other communities. Seven model communities were identified: Boston, Massachusetts; Clark County, Nevada; Eau Claire, Wisconsin; Erie County, New York; Louisville, Kentucky; Livingston County, New York; and Monroe County, New York. This article describes these communities and provides a summary of common findings. Specifically, we recommend that communities foster respectful working relationships between agency leaders, hold regular face-to-face meetings, educate each other on their expertise and roles during a disaster, develop response plans together, work together on a day-to-day basis, identify and encourage a leader to facilitate these relationships, and share resources. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:142–145)