Schizophrenia is being increasingly viewed as a neurodevelopmental disorder, that is, one in which early, fixed pathology becomes manifest clinically during the normal course of maturation of the brain. Evidence for this position comes first from neuroimaging research, such as (1) studies that demonstrate morphologic brain changes (such as ventriculomegaly on CT scans) even in first break patients; and (2) a lack of correlation between these morphologic changes and duration of illness. Another source of evidence is studies of normal brain development in rodents and primates, including research that shows (1) the prefrontal cortex is a late maturing part of the brain, and (2) lesions of the prefrontal cortex may be initially silent and show delayed onset of dysfunction as the brain matures. A neurodevelopmental approach to schizophrenia, in turn, has stimulated further work into the normal development of brain regions implicated in the illness, such as the frontal cortex. Thus, the fields of neuropsychiatry and neurodevelopment have been mutually stimulated during the course of this work. In addition, viewing schizophrenia in developmental terms may have implications for the understanding of changes in cognition and behavior during normal adolescence.

Family interaction patterns were compared for children with depressive disorders and children with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Results indicated that compared to SSD children, depressed children were less positive and more negative when interacting with their mothers. Additionally, depressed children did not significantly reciprocate positive or negative statements initiated by their mothers, whereas reciprocity of both positiveness and negativeness was a significant characteristic of the SSD children. While no between group differences were found in the base rates of mothers' positive and negative responses, mothers of SSD children were more likely than mothers of depressed children to reciprocate child negativeness. Maternal reciprocity of positive statements, while not discriminating diagnostic groups, was a significant characteristic only of mothers of depressed children. The implications of these results for theories of developmental psychopathology are discussed.

The present study sought to examine two issues related to the phenomenological experience of depression in a normative sample of young, middle-school adolescents. The first hypothesis was that self-reported depressed affect would be highly related to low global self-worth. The second hypothesis was that depression is experienced as a blend of sadness and anger, where anger can be directed toward either the self or others. The findings revealed a strong correlation (r = .81) between global self-worth and affect (along a continuum of cheerful to depressed). With regard to the second issue, depression is clearly experienced by adolescents as a blend of affects. Eighty percent reported that depression represents a mix of sadness and anger. In addition, the vast majority reported that the anger is directed toward others, either as the only target or in conjunction with anger toward the self. Findings also revealed that the primary causes of depression involve actions of others against the self, thereby making the anger component realistic. Discussion focused on the role of self-deprecatory ideation in depression and on the issue of the comorbidity of internalizing and externalizing symptoms manifest in depression.

We studied the conservation scores of 21 schizophrenic and schizotypal children (aged 6;7–12;5 years) and 21 yoked normal mental age matches and their relationship to the Kiddie Formal Thought Disorder Scale measures. Like the normal children, the schizophrenic/schizotypal subjects were able to recognize the invariance of two dimensional space, number, and substance, but not of weight. Unlike the normal children, the schizophrenic/schizotypal children were poor conservers of continuous and discontinuous matter, and this was related to their illogical thinking scores. Age and IQ accounted for the conservation competence of the normal children. The conservation skills of the patients, however, were associated with the severity of their formal thought disorder scores, not with their age or IQ. The developmental approach employed in this study enabled further clarification of the cognitive parameters of formal thought disorder in middle childhood. We discuss the developmental, clinical, and possible information processing implications of these findings.

This article describes the Rochester Child Resilience Project (RCRP) and summarizes findings based on its initial year of operation. Among 4th-6th-grade urban children who had experienced significant life stress, convergent sources of evidence about current adjustment identified demographically matched samples of 37 stress-affected (SA) and 40 stress-resilient (SR) children. These two groups were compared on 11 test measures designed to expand the nomological definitional net for the concept of childhood resilience. Additionally, separate in-depth individual interviews were conducted with children and primary caregivers. Both test and interview responses significantly differentiated the groups in the predicted directions. Children's group status (SR vs. SA) was predictable on the basis of discriminant function analysis involving five test measures, blind ratings done both for the parent and child interviews, and hierarchical regression analyses reflecting major domains of the parent interview.

This article reviews the research on resilience in order to delineate its significance and potential for understanding normal development. Resilience refers to the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances. Three resilience phenomena are reviewed: (a) good outcomes in high-risk children, (b) sustained competence in children under stress, and (c) recovery from trauma. It is concluded that human psychological development is highly buffered and that long-lasting consequences of adversity usually are associated with either organic damage or severe interference in the normative protective processes embedded in the caregiving system. Children who experience chronic adversity fare better or recover more successfully when they have a positive relationship with a competent adult, they are good learners and problem-solvers, they are engaging to other people, and they have areas of competence and perceived efficacy valued by self or society. Future studies of resilience will need to focus on processes that facilitate adaptation. Such studies have the potential to illuminate the range and self-righting properties of, constraints on, and linkages among different aspects of cognitive, emotional, and social development.

Two previous reports on a female population sample in Outer London, UK, had identified certain environmental experiences–such as lack of adequate replacement care after parental loss in childhood, premarital pregnancy, and low social class and poor emotional support in adulthood–as key factors intervening between childhood loss of parent and depression in adulthood. A third paper introduced a measure of the cognitive set of situational helplessness-mastery which was associated, on the one hand, with current depression and, on the other, with loss of mother in childhood. This article examines the relationship between these other factors and situational helplessness both in childhood and in adulthood. Most are highly associated with the cognitive set, but the relationship between childhood helplessness and loss of mother appears to be differentially mediated according to whether the loss was by death or separation. A series of multivariate statistical analyses aims to integrate all the findings so far reported on in this sample into a biographical model of the developmental pathways from childhood loss of mother to current depression.

This study examined adolescents' expectations and values about how competent behaviors would work for them in difficult social situations and explored the relation of these appraisals to adolescents' delinquency, drug use, and sexual intercourse without use of adequate birth control. Several lines of research on the determinants of adolescent achievement motivation, social competence, and various problem behaviors are integrated within a unified framework based on both motivational and cognitive-social learning theories. One hundred adolescents at-risk for problematic behaviors, aged 15½–18, received structured interviews measuring their expectations of self-efficacy in performing socially competent behaviors, their expectations about the outcomes of these behaviors, their values toward these behaviors, their perceptions of the values of peers, and their identification with the values of important adults. Adolescents also reported their recent levels of delinquency, hard drug use, and unprotected sexual activity. Adolescents' expectations and values were significantly related to all three problem behaviors; males' low efficacy expectations and females' lack of identification with an adult's values were the strongest correlates of problem behaviors. Adolescents' expectations and values are considered as potentially important aspects of adolescents' models of themselves in social interactions, which may mediate the link between problematic family relationships in childhood and deviant behavior in adolescence.