Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T23:55:22.108Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A multiple levels of analysis examination of the performance goal model of depression vulnerability in preadolescent children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 September 2020

Jason José Bendezú Open the ORCID record for Jason José Bendezú [Opens in a new window] ,
Alaina Wodzinski Open the ORCID record for Alaina Wodzinski [Opens in a new window] ,
John E. Loughlin-Presnal ,
Jesse Mozeko ,
Sierra Cobler  and
Martha E. Wadsworth
Jason José Bendezú*
Affiliation:
The Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Alaina Wodzinski
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
John E. Loughlin-Presnal
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Jesse Mozeko
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Sierra Cobler
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Martha E. Wadsworth
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Jason José Bendezú, Institute of Child Development, 206A ChDev, 51 E River Parkway, Minneapolis, MN55455; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

If performance goals (i.e., motivation to prove ability) increase children's vulnerability to depression (Dykman, 1998), why are they overlooked in the psychopathology literature? Evidence has relied on self-report or observational methods and has yet to articulate how this vulnerability unfolds across levels of analysis implicated in stress–depression linkages; for example, hypothalamic–pituitaryadrenal axis (HPA), sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Utilizing a multiple-levels-of-analysis approach (Cicchetti, 2010), this experimental study tested Dykman's goal orientation model of depression vulnerability in a community sample of preadolescents (N = 121, Mage = 10.60 years, Range = 9.08–12.00 years, 51.6% male). Self-reports of performance goals, attachment security, and subjective experience of internalizing difficulties were obtained in addition to objective behavioral (i.e., task persistence) and physiologic arousal (i.e., salivary cortisol, skin conductance level) responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and two randomly assigned coping conditions: avoidance, distraction. Children with performance goals reported greater internalizing difficulties and exhibited more dysregulated TSST physiologic responses (i.e., HPA hyperreactivity, SNS protracted recovery), yet unexpectedly displayed greater TSST task persistence and more efficient physiologic recovery during avoidance relative to distraction. These associations were stronger and nonsignificant in the context of insecure and secure attachment, respectively. Findings illustrate a complex matrix of in-the-moment, integrative psychobiological relationships linking performance goals to depression vulnerability.

Keywords

copingcortisoldepressiongoal orientationpreadolescence
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , February 2022 , pp. 241 - 261
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abela, J. R., Hankin, B. L., Haigh, E. A., Adams, P., Vinokuroff, T., & Trayhern, L. (2005). Interpersonal vulnerability to depression in high-risk children: The role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 182–192. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P., & Miga, E. M. (2010). Attachment in adolescence: A move to the level of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407509360898CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderman, E. M., Griesinger, T., & Westerfield, G. (1998). Motivation and cheating during early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 84–93. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.90.1.84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baer, A. R., Grant, H., & Dweck, C. (2008). Personal goals predict the impact of distress. Unpublished manuscript. Stanford University, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Caprara, G. V. (1999). Self-efficacy pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 258–269. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.258CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bendezú, J. J., Perzow, S. E. P., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2016). What constitutes effective coping and efficient physiologic regulation following psychosocial stress depends on involuntary stress responses. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 73, 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.07.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Separation (Vol. 2). London: Hogarth.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affective bonds. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Burke, H. M., Davis, M. C., Otte, C., & Mohr, D. C. (2005). Depression and cortisol responses to psychological stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 846–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.02.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Sheridan, J. F., & McClintock, M. K. (2000). Multilevel integrative analyses of human behavior: Social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 829–843. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.829CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capaldi, D. M., & Rothbart, M. K. (1992). Development and validation of an early adolescent temperament measure. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 12(2), 153–173.10.1177/0272431692012002002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (2008). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Church, M. A., Elliot, A. J., & Gable, S. L. (2001). Perceptions of classroom environment, achievement goals, and achievement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 43–54. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2010). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on research in development and psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 27–57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2016). A multilevel developmental psychopathology systems perspective on depression. In Frodl, T. (Ed.), Systems neuroscience in depression (pp. 3–28). Cambridge, MA: Elsevier, Academic Press.10.1016/B978-0-12-802456-0.00001-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Connor, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M.. (1999). Getting specific about coping: Effortful and involuntary responses to stress in development. In Lewis, M., & Ramsey, D. (Eds.), Soothing and Stress (pp. 229–256). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Responses to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 976–992. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.976CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of personal values buffers neuroendocrine and psychological stress responses. Psychological Science, 16, 846–851. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2005.01624.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392–414. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., & Keller, P. S. (2007). Children's skin conductance reactivity as a mechanism of risk in the context of parental depressive symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 436–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01713.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cury, F., Elliot, A. J., Da Fonseca, D., & Moller, A. C. (2006). The social-cognitive model of achievement motivation and the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 666–679. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.666CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darnon, C., Harackiewicz, J. M., Butera, F., Mugny, G., & Quiamzade, A. (2007). Performance-approach and performance-avoidancegoals: When uncertainty makes a difference. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(6), 813–827.10.1177/0146167207301022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). The anterior attention network: Associations with temperament and neuroendocrine activity in 6-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 40, 43–56. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/dev.10012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Kloet, E. R., Joëls, M., & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: From adaptation to disease. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 6, 463–475. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1038/nrn1683CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doom, J. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). Stress physiology and developmental psychopathology: past, present, and future. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1359–1373. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/S0954579413000667CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040.10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social–cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dykman, B. M. (1998). Integrating cognitive and motivational factors in depression: initial tests of a goal-orientation approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 139–158. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.139CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218.10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (2003). A motivational analysis of defensive pessimism and self-handicapping. Journal of Personality, 71, 369–396. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/1467-6494.7103005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliot, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5–12. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 628. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.628CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 549–563. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.549CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliot, A. J., & Moller, A. C. (2003). Performance-approach goals: Good or bad forms of regulation? International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 339–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2004.06.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 804–818. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.804CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Englund, M. M., Egeland, B., & Collins, W. A. (2008). Exceptions to high school dropout predictions in a low-income sample: Do adults make a difference? Journal of Social Issues, 64, 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00549.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W., & Marcynyszyn, L. A. (2004). Environmental justice, cumulative environmental risk, and health among low-and middle-income children in upstate New York. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1942–1944. DOI: 10.2105/ajph.94.11.194210.2105/AJPH.94.11.1942CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, H., Fu, H., Li, X., & Meng, L. (2019). Trapped in the woods: High performance goal orientation impedes competence restoration. Personality and Individual Differences, 150, 109479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.06.022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granger, D. A., Hibel, L. C., Fortunato, C. K., & Kapelewski, C. H. (2009). Medication effects on salivary cortisol: Tactics and strategy to minimize impact in behavioral and developmental science. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1437–1448. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.06.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Stuhlmacher, A. F., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Halpert, J. A. (2003). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Moving from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 447–466. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, H., & Dweck, C. S. (2003). Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 541–553. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greaven, S. H., Santor, D. A., Thompson, R., & Zuroff, D. C. (2000). Adolescent self-handicapping, depressive affect, and maternal parenting styles. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 631–646. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1023/A:1026499721533CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R. (2017). Early social deprivation and dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, S317.10.1016/j.jaac.2017.07.633CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953–967. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hankin, B. L. (2012). Future directions in vulnerability to depression among youth: Integrating risk factors and processes across multiple levels of analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 695–718. DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2012.71170810.1080/15374416.2012.711708CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., Mermelstein, R., & Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent depression: Stress exposure and reactivity models. Child Development, 78, 279–295. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00997.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Carter, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Predictors and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1284–1295. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy (p. 6). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (2005). Value from regulatory fit. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 209–213.10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00366.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, R. L., Snyder, C. R., & Berglas, S. (1990). Self-handicapping: The paradox that isn't. New York: Plenum Press.10.1007/978-1-4899-0861-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Calkins, S. D., Granger, D. A., Moore, G. A., … Cox, M. J. (2008). Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 361–376. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/dev.20302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M. S., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 588–599. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.588CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ji, J., Negriff, S., Kim, H., & Susman, E. J. (2016). A study of cortisol reactivity and recovery among young adolescents: Heterogeneity and longitudinal stability and change. Developmental Psychobiology, 58, 283–302. DOI: 10.1002/dev.2136910.1002/dev.21369CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, A. E., Perry, N. B., Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019). Cognitive–affective strategies and cortisol stress reactivity in children and adolescents: Normative development and effects of early life stress. Developmental Psychobiology, 61(7), 999–1013.10.1002/dev.21849CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 141–184. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, A. E., & Kahn, J. H. (1994). Effects of suppression of personal intrusive thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 998–1006. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.998CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Klepac, L., & Cole, A. (1996). Peer relationships and preadolescents’ perceptions of security in the child-mother relationship. Developmental Psychology, 32, 457–466. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.3.457CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koole, S. L., Smeets, K., Van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999). The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 111–125. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraemer, H. C., Kazdin, A. E., Offord, D. R., Kessler, R. C., Jensen, P. S., & Kupfer, D. J. (1997). Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 337–343. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830160065009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kudielka, B. M., Hellhammer, D. H., & Kirschbaum, C. (2007). Ten years of research with the Trier Social Stress Test – revisited. In Harmon-Jones, E., & Winkielman, P. (Eds.), Social Neuroscience (pp. 56–83). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Kuroda, Y., & Sakurai, S. (2011). Social goal orientations, interpersonal stress, and depressive symptoms among early adolescents in Japan: A test of the diathesis-stress model using the trichotomous framework of social goal orientations. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31, 300–322. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0272431610363158CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambird, K. H., & Mann, T. (2006). When do ego threats lead to self-regulation failure? Negative consequences of defensive high self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(9), 1177–1187.10.1177/0146167206289408CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeDoux, J. E., Moscarello, J., Sears, R., & Campese, V. (2017). The birth, death and resurrection of avoidance: A reconceptualization of a troubled paradigm. Molecular Psychiatry, 22, 24–36. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1038/mp.2016.166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, A., & Hankin, B. L. (2009). Insecure attachment, dysfunctional attitudes, and low self-esteem predicting prospective symptoms of depression and anxiety during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802698396CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, J. E., & Scott, W. (2005). Dysphoria and self-esteem following an achievement event: Predictive validity of goal orientation and personality style theories of vulnerability. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 769–785.10.1007/s10608-005-9637-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202.10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. J. (2009). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1272–1283. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez-Duran, N. L., McGinnis, E., Kuhlman, K., Geiss, E., Vargas, I., & Mayer, S. (2015). HPA-axis stress reactivity in youth depression: Evidence of impaired regulatory processes in depressed boys. Stress, 18, 545–553. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2015.1053455CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, G. M., Gratch, J., Cheng, L., & Marsella, S. (2015). When the going gets tough: Grit predicts costly perseverance. Journal of Research in Personality, 59, 15–22. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maehr, M. L., & Zusho, A. (2009). Achievement goal theory: The past, present, and future. In Wentzel, K. R. & Wigfield, A. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 77–104). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mcewen, B. S. (2000). The neurobiology of stress: From serendipity to clinical relevance. Brain Research, 886(1–2), 172–189.10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02950-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesa, V. (2012). Achievement goal orientations of community college mathematics students and the misalignment of instructor perceptions. Community College Review, 40, 46–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552111435663CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 77–86. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.77CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., … Urdan, T. (2000). Patterns of adaptive learning survey (PALS). Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Miller, R., & Plessow, F. (2013). Transformation techniques for cross-sectional and longitudinal endocrine data: Application to salivary cortisol concentrations. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 941–946. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.09.01310.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.09.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosteller, F., & Tukey, J. W.. (1977). Data analysis and regression: A second course in statistics. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.Google Scholar
Murdock, T. B., Miller, A. D., & Goetzinger, A. (2007). Effects of classroom context on university students’ judgments about cheating: Mediating and moderating processes. Social Psychology of Education, 10, 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-007-9015-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholls, J. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholls, J. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Nickerson, A. B., & Nagle, R. J. (2005). Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 223–249. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0272431604274174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-6924.2008.00088.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Haire, M. E., McKenzie, S. J., Beck, A. M., & Slaughter, V. (2015). Animals may act as social buffers: Skin conductance arousal in children with autism spectrum disorder in a social context. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 584–595. DOI: 10.1002/dev.2131010.1002/dev.21310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Roberts, B. W. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 695–708. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.695CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owens, S. A., Helms, S. W., Rudolph, K. D., Hastings, P. D., Nock, M. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (2019). Interpersonal stress severity longitudinally predicts adolescent girls’ depressive symptoms: The moderating role of subjective and HPA axis stress responses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(5), 895–905.10.1007/s10802-018-0483-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, L. E., Crocker, J., & Mickelson, K. D. (2004). Attachment styles and contingencies of self-worth. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167204264000CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, N. B., Donzella, B., Parenteau, A. M., Desjardins, C., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019). Emotion regulation and cortisol reactivity during a social evaluative stressor: A study of post-institutionalized youth. Developmental Psychobiology, 61(4), 557–572.10.1002/dev.21828CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17(2), 117–133.10.1007/BF01537962CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsook, K. A., Benson, L., Ram, N., & Cole, P. M. (2019). Age-related changes in the relation between preschoolers’ anger and persistence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0165025419866914Google ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, C., & Kamphaus, R.. (2004). Behavior assessment for children,(BASC-2). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Rhodewalt, F., & Vohs, K. D. (2005). Defensive strategies, motivation, and the self: A self-regulatory process view. In Elliot, A. & Dweck, C. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 548–565). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Robins, R. W., & Pals, J. L. (2002). Implicit self-theories in the academic domain: Implications for goal orientation, attributions, affect, and selfesteem change. Self and Identity, 1, 313–336.10.1080/15298860290106805CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohleder, N., & Nater, U. M. (2009). Determinants of salivary α-amylase in humans and methodological considerations. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 469–485. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.12.00410.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.12.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbaum, F., Morling, B., & Rusk, N. (2009). How goals and beliefs lead people into and out of depression. Review of General Psychology, 13, 302–314. https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0017140CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J. D., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationships to teachers, parents, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 226–249. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/027243169401400207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sher, L. (2004). Daily hassles, cortisol, and the pathogenesis of depression. Medical Hypotheses, 62(2), 198–202.10.1016/S0306-9877(03)00320-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shirtcliff, E. A., Peres, J. C., Dismukes, A. R., Lee, Y., & Phan, J. M. (2014). Hormones: Commentary: Riding the physiological roller coaster: Adaptive significance of cortisol stress reactivity to social contexts. Journal of Personality Disorders, 28, 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2014.28.1.40CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shull, A., Mayer, S. E., McGinnis, E., Geiss, E., Vargas, I., & Lopez-Duran, N. L. (2016). Trait and state rumination interact to prolong cortisol activation to psychosocial stress in females. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 74, 324–332. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.09.00410.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sideridis, G. D. (2005). Goal orientation, academic achievement, and depression: Evidence in favor of a revised goal theory framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 366–375. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.366CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sideridis, G. D. (2007). Why are students with LD depressed? A goal orientation model of depression vulnerability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 526–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194070400060401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sideridis, G. D. (2008). The regulation of affect, anxiety, and stressful arousal from adopting mastery-avoidance goal orientations. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 24, 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sideridis, G. D., Antoniou, F., & Simos, P. (2013). The physiological effects of goal orientations on the reading performance of students with dyslexia: A pilot study. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 1546–1551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.080CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 417–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., Dockray, S., Granger, D. A., Blades, K. T., Randazzo, W., Heaton, J. A., & Dorn, L. D. (2010). Cortisol and alpha amylase reactivity and timing of puberty: Vulnerabilities for antisocial behavior in young adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 557–569. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, J. C., Thorpe, P. K., & Meyer, D. K. (1998). Students’ reports of motivation and negative affect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 758–771. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.4.758CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: Examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.251CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urdan, T., Midgley, C., & Anderman, E. M. (1998). The role of classroom goal structure in students’ use of self-handicapping strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 101–122. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F00028312035001101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Bos, E., de Rooij, M., Miers, A. C., Bokhorst, C. L., & Westenberg, P. M. (2014). Adolescents’ increasing stress response to social evaluation: Pubertal effects on cortisol and alpha-amylase during public speaking. Child Development, 85, 220–236. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/cdev.12118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughn, B. E., Coppola, G., Verissimo, M., Monteiro, L., Santos, A. J., Posada, G., … McBride, B. (2007). The quality of maternal secure-base scripts predicts children's secure-base behavior at home in three sociocultural groups. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0165025407073574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wachtel, E. F. (2001). The language of becoming: Helping children change how they think about themselves. Family Process, 40, 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2001.4040100369.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wadsworth, M. E. (2013). Responses to stress coding manual for in vivo coping. The Pennsylvania State University: University Park.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, M. E., Bendezú, J. J., Loughlin-Presnal, J., Ahlkvist, J. A., Tilghman-Osborne, E., Bianco, H., … Hurwich-Reiss, E. (2018). Unlocking the black box: A multilevel analysis of preadolescent children's coping. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47, 527–541. doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1141356CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wenzlaff, R. M., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). Thought suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 59–91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.59CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2016). The development of coping and regulation: Implications for psychopathology and resilience. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology (3rd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 485–544). Oxford, UK: Wiley.Google Scholar
Zoccola, P. M., & Dickerson, S. S. (2012). Assessing the relationship between rumination and cortisol: A review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 73, 1–9. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.03.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoccola, P. M., Figueroa, W. S., Rabideau, E. M., Woody, A., & Benencia, F. (2014). Differential effects of poststressor rumination and distraction on cortisol and C-reactive protein. Health Psychology, 33(12), 1606.10.1037/hea0000019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed