Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-sk4tg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-16T22:30:58.983Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Child maltreatment, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior in African American children: Moderation effects from a cumulative dopaminergic gene index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2015

Eric L. Thibodeau ,
Dante Cicchetti  and
Fred A. Rogosch
Eric L. Thibodeau*
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota Institute of Child Development
Dante Cicchetti*
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota Institute of Child Development University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center
Fred A. Rogosch
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota Institute of Child Development
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Eric L. Thibodeau or Dante Cicchetti, Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, 51 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455; E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected].
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Eric L. Thibodeau or Dante Cicchetti, Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, 51 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455; E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A model examining the effects of an increasing number of maltreatment subtypes experienced on antisocial behavior, as mediated by impulsivity and moderated by a polygenic index of dopaminergic genotypes, was investigated. An African American sample of children (N = 1,012, M age = 10.07) with and without maltreatment histories participated. Indicators of aggression, delinquency, and disruptive peer behavior were obtained from peer- and counselor-rated measures to form a latent variable of antisocial behavior; impulsivity was assessed by counselor report. Five genotypes in four dopaminergic genes (dopamine receptors D4, D2, known as DRD4, DRD2; dopamine active transporter 1, known as DAT1; and catechol-O-methyltransferase, known as COMT) conferring heightened environmental sensitivity were combined into one polygenic index. Using structural equation modeling, a first-stage, moderated-mediation model was evaluated. Age and sex were entered as covariates, both as main effects and in interaction with maltreatment and the gene index. The model had excellent fit: χ2 (32, N = 1,012) = 86.51, p < .001; comparative fit index = 0.982, Tucker–Lewis index = 0.977, root mean square error of approximation = 0.041, and standardized root mean square residual = 0.022. The effect of maltreatment subtypes on antisocial behavior was partially mediated by impulsivity (β = 0.173, p < .001), and these relations were moderated by the number of differentiating dopaminergic genotypes. Specifically, a significant Gene × Environment interaction (β = 0.016, p = .013) indicated that the relation between maltreatment and impulsivity was stronger as children evinced more differentiating genotypes, thereby strengthening the mediational effect of impulsivity on antisocial behavior. These findings elucidate the manner by which maltreated children develop early signs of antisocial behavior, and the genetic mechanisms involved in greater vulnerability for maladaptation in impulse control within the context of child maltreatment.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives on Child Maltreatment , November 2015 , pp. 1621 - 1636
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R., Cicchetti, D., Kim, J., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Longitudinal associations among child maltreatment, social functioning, and cortisol regulation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arinami, T., Gao, M., Hamaguchi, H., & Toru, M. (1997). A functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the dopamine D2 receptor gene is associated with schizophrenia. Human Molecular Genetics, 6, 577–582.Google Scholar
Asghari, V., Sanyal, S., Buchwaldt, S., Paterson, A., Jovanovic, V., & Van Tol, H. H. (1995). Modulation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels by different human dopamine D4 receptor variants. Journal of Neurochemistry, 65, 1157–1165.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 39–52.Google Scholar
Barnett, D., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (pp. 7–74). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Barr, C. L., Xu, C., Kroft, J., Feng, Y., Wigg, K., Zai, G., et al. (2001). Haplotype study of three polymorphisms at the dopamine transporter locus confirm linkage to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 333–339.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 619–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Jonassaint, C., Pluess, M., Stanton, M., Brummett, B., & Williams, R. (2009). Vulnerability genes or plasticity genes & quest. Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 746–754.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885.Google Scholar
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 57, 289–300.Google Scholar
Block, J. (1961). The Q-sort method in personality assessment and psychiatric research. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Block, J., & Block, J. H. (2006). Venturing a 30-year longitudinal study. American Psychologist, 61, 315.Google Scholar
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1988). Longitudinally foretelling drug usage in adolescence: Early childhood personality and environmental precursors. Child Development, 59, 336–355.Google Scholar
Block, J., Gjerde, P. F., & Block, J. H. (1986). More misgivings about the Matching Familiar Figures Test as a measure of reflection-impulsivity: Absence of construct validity in preadolescence. Developmental Psychology, 22, 820.Google Scholar
Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1998). Peer relationships and self-esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69, 1171–1197.Google Scholar
Brodsky, B. S., Oquendo, M., Ellis, S. P., Haas, G. L., Malone, K. M., & Mann, J. J. (2001). The relationship of childhood abuse to impulsivity and suicidal behavior in adults with major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1871–1877.Google Scholar
Buckholtz, J. W., Treadway, M. T., Cowan, R. L., Woodward, N. D., Li, R., Ansari, M. S., et al. (2010). Dopaminergic network differences in human impulsivity. Science, 329, 532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bukowski, W. M., Sippola, L., Hoza, B., & Newcomb, A. F. (2000). Pages from a sociometric notebook: An analysis of nomination and rating scale measures of acceptance, rejection, and social preference. In Cillessen, A. H. N. & Bukowski, W. M. (Eds.), New directions for child and adolescent development: Vol. 88. Recent advances in the measurement of acceptance and rejection in the peer system (pp. 11–26). San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.Google Scholar
Caylak, E. (2012). Biochemical and genetic analyses of childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 159, 613–627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, J., Lipska, B. K., Halim, N., Ma, Q. D., Matsumoto, M., Melhem, S., et al. (2004). Functional analysis of genetic variation in catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT): Effects on mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity in postmortem human brain. American Journal of Human Genetics, 75, 807–821.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2013). Annual Research Review: Resilient functioning in maltreated children—Past, present, and future perspectives. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 402–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Manly, J. T. (1990). A personal perspective on conducting research with maltreating families: Problems and solutions. In Brody, G. & Sigel, I. (Eds.), Methods of family research: Families at risk (Vol. 2, pp. 87–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Gene × Environment interaction and resilience: Effects of child maltreatment and serotonin, corticotropin releasing hormone, dopamine, and oxytocin genes. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 411–427.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Thibodeau, E. L. (2012). The effects of child maltreatment on early signs of antisocial behavior: Genetic moderation by tryptophan hydroxylase, serotonin transporter, and monoamine oxidase A genes. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 907–928.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2015). A multilevel perspective on child maltreatment. In Lamb, M. & Garcia Coll, C. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 3. Socioemotional process (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Manly, J. T. (2003). Maternal Maltreatment Interview. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1983). Continuities and changes in children's social status: A five-year longitudinal study. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 29, 261–282.Google Scholar
Cornish, K. M., Manly, T., Savage, R., Swanson, J., Morisano, D., Butler, N., et al. (2005). Association of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) 10/10-repeat genotype with ADHD symptoms and response inhibition in a general population sample. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 686–698.Google Scholar
Cowell, R. A., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2015). Childhood maltreatment and its effect on neurocognitive functioning: Timing and chronicity matter. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 521–533.Google Scholar
Dackis, M. N., Rogosch, F. A., Oshri, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2012). The role of limbic system irritability in linking history of childhood maltreatment and phychiatric outcomes in low-income, high-risk women: Moderation by FK506 binding protein 5 haplotype. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1237–1252.Google Scholar
Davies, P., Cicchetti, D., & Hentges, R. F. (2015). Maternal unresponsiveness and child disruptive problems: The interplay of uninhibited temperament and dopamine transporter genes. Chid Development, 86, 63–79.Google Scholar
Davis, C., & Loxton, N. J. (2013). Addictive behaviors and addiction-prone personality traits: Associations with a dopamine multilocus genetic profile. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2306–2312.Google Scholar
De Brito, S. A., Viding, E., Sebastian, C. L., Kelly, P. A., Mechelli, A., Maris, H., et al. (2013). Reduced orbitofrontal and temporal grey matter in a community sample of maltreated children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 105–112.Google Scholar
Derefinko, K., DeWall, C. N., Metze, A. V., Walsh, E. C., & Lynam, D. R. (2011). Do different facets of impulsivity predict different types of aggression? Aggressive Behavior, 37, 223–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeYoung, C., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Gray, J., Eastman, M., & Grigorenko, E. (2011). Sources of cognitive exploration: Genetic variation in the prefrontal dopamine system predicts openness/intellect. Journal of Research in Personality, 45, 364–371.Google Scholar
Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1041–1049.Google Scholar
Egeland, B., Yates, T., Appleyard, K., & Van Dulmen, M. (2002). The long-term consequences of maltreatment in the early years: A developmental pathway model to antisocial behavior. Children's Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 5, 249–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.Google Scholar
English, D. J., Upadhyaya, M. P., Litrownik, A. J., Marshall, J. M., Runyan, D. K., Graham, J. C., et al. (2005). Maltreatment's wake: The relationship of maltreatment dimensions to child outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 597–619.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research Review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.Google Scholar
Funder, D. C., & Block, J. (1989). The role of ego-control, ego-resiliency, and IQ in delay of gratification in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1041.Google Scholar
Gelles, R. J., & Perlman, S. (2012). Estimated annual cost of child abuse and neglect. Chicago: Prevent Child Abuse America.Google Scholar
Ghosh, J., Pradhan, S., & Mittal, B. (2013). Identification of a novel ANKK1 and other dopaminergic (DRD2 and DBH) gene variants in migraine susceptibility. Neuromolecular Medicine, 15, 61–73.Google Scholar
Gizer, I. R., & Waldman, I. D. (2012). Double dissociation between lab measures of inattention and impulsivity and the dopamine transporter gene (DAT) and dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 1011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottesman, I. I., & Gould, T. D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: Etymology and strategic intentions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 636–645.Google Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to symptoms of depression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 201–214.Google Scholar
Hong, J. S., Espelage, D. L., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Allen-Meares, P. (2012). Identifying potential mediators and moderators of the association between child maltreatment and bullying perpetration and victimization in school. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 167–186.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Taylor, A. (2004). Physical maltreatment victim to antisocial child: Evidence of an environmentally mediated process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 44.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Strait, L. B., & Odgers, C. L. (2012). From correlates to causes: Can quasi-experimental studies and statistical innovations bring us closer to identifying the causes of antisocial behavior? Psychological Bulletin, 138, 272.Google Scholar
Keller, M. C. (2014). Gene x environment interaction studies have not properly controlled for potential confounders: The problem and the (simple) solution. Biological Psychiatry, 75, 18–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716.Google Scholar
Kim, J., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Manly, J. T. (2009). Child maltreatment and trajectories of personality and behavioral functioning: Implications for the development of personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 889–912.Google Scholar
Kim, S., & Lee, D. (2011). Prefrontal cortex and impulsive decision making. Biological Psychiatry, 69, 1140–1146.Google Scholar
Lai, C. Q., Tucker, K. L., Choudhry, S., Parnell, L. D., Mattei, J., Garcia-Bailo, B., et al. (2009). Population admixture associated with disease prevalence in the Boston Puerto Rican health study. Human Genetics, 125, 199–205.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F. (2013). Endophenotype, intermediate phenotype, biomarker: Definitions, concept comparisons, clarifications. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 185–189.Google Scholar
Lesch, K. P., & Merschdorf, U. (2000). Impulsivity, aggression, and serotonin: A molecular psychobiological perspective. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 581–604.Google Scholar
Letzring, T. D., Block, J., & Funder, D. C. (2005). Ego-control and ego-resiliency: Generalization of self-report scales based on personality descriptions from acquaintances, clinicians, and the self. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 395–422.Google Scholar
Li, J. J., & Lee, S. S. (2010). Latent class analysis of antisocial behavior: Interaction of serotonin transporter genotype and maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 789–801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, J. J., & Lee, S. S. (2012). Interaction of dopamine transporter (DAT1) genotype and maltreatment for ADHD: A latent class analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 997–1005.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Menting, B., Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Stallings, R., et al. (2012). Findings from the Pittsburgh Youth Study: Cognitive impulsivity and intelligence as predictors of the age-crime curve. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 1136–1149.Google Scholar
Lovallo, W. R. (2013). Early life adversity reduces stress reactivity and enhances impulsive behavior: Implications for health behaviors. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90, 8–16.Google Scholar
Luengo, M. A., Carrillo-De-La-Pena, M. T., Otero, J. M., & Romero, E. (1994). A short-term longitudinal study of impulsivity and antisocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 542.Google Scholar
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., & Fairchild, A. J. (2009). Current directions in mediation analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 16–20.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 384–389.Google Scholar
Maitra, S., Sarkar, K., Ghosh, P., Karmakar, A., Bhattacharjee, A., Sinha, S., et al. (2014). Potential contribution of dopaminergic gene variants in ADHD core traits and co-morbidity: A study on Eastern Indian probands. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 34, 549–564.Google Scholar
Manly, J. T. (2005). Advances in research definitions of child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 425–439.Google Scholar
Manly, J. T., Cicchetti, D., & Barnett, D. (1994). The impact of subtype, frequency, chronicity, and severity of child maltreatment on social competence and behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 121–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manly, J. T., Kim, J. E., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759–782.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.Google Scholar
McCrory, E., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2012). The link between child abuse and psychopathology: A review of neurobiological and genetic research. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 105, 151–156.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2005). The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene–environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 533.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Life-course-persistent versus adolescence-limited antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 570–598). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Murray-Close, D., Han, G., Cicchetti, D., Crick, N. R., & Rogosch, F. A. (2008). Neuroendocrine regulation and physical and relational aggression: The moderating roles of child maltreatment and gender. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Neumann, A., Barker, E. D., Koot, H. M., & Maughan, B. (2010). The role of contextual risk, impulsivity, and parental knowledge in the development of adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 534.Google Scholar
Niv, S., Tuvblad, C., Raine, A., Wang, P., & Baker, L. A. (2012). Heritability and longitudinal stability of impulsivity in adolescence. Behavior Genetics, 42, 378–392.Google Scholar
Nobile, M., Rusconi, M., Bellina, M., Marino, C., Giorda, R., Carlet, O., et al. (2010). COMT Val158Met polymorphism and socioeconomic status interact to predict attention deficit/hyperactivity problems in children aged 10–14. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 549–557.Google Scholar
Okuyama, Y., Ishiguro, H., Toru, M., & Arinami, T. (1999). A genetic polymorphism in the promoter region of DRD4 associated with expression and schizophrenia. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 258, 292–295.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., Burnette, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: Child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 634.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Child maltreatment and mediating influences of childhood personality types on the development of adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42, 287–301.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Sutton, T. E., Clay-Warner, J., & Miller, J. D. (2015). Child maltreatment types and risk behaviors: Associations with attachment style and emotion regulation dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 127–133.Google Scholar
Ouellet-Morin, I., Odgers, C. L., Danese, A., Bowes, L., Shakoor, S., Papadopoulos, A., et al. (2011). Blunted cortisol responses to stress signal social and behavioral problems among maltreated/bullied 12-year-old children. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 1016–1023.Google Scholar
Perroud, N., Jaussent, I., Guillaume, S., Bellivier, F., Baud, P., Jollant, F., et al. (2010). COMT but not serotonin-related genes modulates the influence of childhood abuse on anger traits. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 9, 193–202.Google Scholar
Pluess, M. (2015). Individual differences in environmental sensitivity. Child Development Perspectives. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679.Google Scholar
R Core Team. (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org Google Scholar
Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., et al. (2006). The Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 159.Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1071–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., Shields, A., & Toth, S. L. (1995). Parenting dysfunction in child maltreatment. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (pp. 127–159). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., Dackis, M. N., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Child maltreatment and allostatic load: Consequences for physical and mental health in children from low-income families. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1107–1124.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Newman, D. A., Fraley, R. C., Haltigan, J. D., Groh, A. M., & Haydon, K. C. (2012). Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis–stress: Recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 389–409.Google Scholar
Rommelse, N. N., Altink, M. E., Arias-Vásquez, A., Buschgens, C. J., Fliers, E., Faraone, S. V., et al. (2008). A review and analysis of the relationship between neuropsychological measures and DAT1 in ADHD. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147, 1536–1546.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, D. (1970). Genetic theory and abnormal behavior. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 335–344.Google Scholar
Sáiz, P. A., García-Portilla, M. P., Arango, C., Morales, B., Arias, B., Corcoran, P., et al. (2010). Genetic polymorphisms in the dopamine-2 receptor (DRD2), dopamine-3 receptor (DRD3), and dopamine transporter (SLC6A3) genes in schizophrenia: Data from an association study. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34, 26–31.Google Scholar
Satorra, A. (2000). Scaled and adjusted restricted tests in multi-sample analysis of moment structures. In Heijmans, R. D. H., Pollock, D. S. G., & Satorra, A. (Eds.), Innovations in multivariate statistical analysis: A Festschrift for Heinz Neudecker (pp. 233–247). London: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Sedlak, A. J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., et al. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress, Executive Summary. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.Google Scholar
Seo, D., Patrick, C. J., & Kennealy, P. J. (2008). Role of serotonin and dopamine system interactions in the neurobiology of impulsive aggression and its comorbidity with other clinical disorders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 383–395.Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.Google Scholar
Simpson, J., Vetuz, G., Wilson, M., Brookes, K. J., & Kent, L. (2010). The DRD4 receptor exon 3 VNTR and 5′ SNP variants and mRNA expression in human post-mortem brain tissue. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153, 1228–1233.Google Scholar
Sujan, A. C., Humphreys, K. L., Ray, L. A., & Lee, S. S. (2014). Differential association of child abuse with self-reported versus laboratory-based impulsivity and risk-taking in young adulthood. Child Maltreatment, 14, 145–155.Google Scholar
Tarullo, A. R. & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639.Google Scholar
Teisl, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2008). Physical abuse, cognitive and emotional processes, and aggressive/disruptive behavior problems. Social Development, 17, 1–23.Google Scholar
Thompson, J., Thomas, N., Singleton, A., Piggot, M., Lloyd, S., Perry, E. K., et al. (1997). D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) Taql A polymorphism: Reduced dopamine D2 receptor binding in the human striatum associated with the A1 allele. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics, 7, 479–484.Google Scholar
Tofighi, D., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2011). RMediation: An R package for mediation analysis confidence intervals. Behavior Research Methods, 43, 692–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trickett, P. K., Noll, J. G., Susman, E. J., Shenk, C. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2010). Attenuation of cortisol across development for victims of sexual abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 165–175.Google Scholar
Vandenbergh, D. J., Persico, A. M., Hawkins, A. L., Griffin, C. A., Li, X., Jabs, E. W., et al. (1992). Human dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) maps to chromosome 5p15. 3 and displays a VNTR. Genomics, 14, 1104–1106.Google Scholar
van Goozen, S. H., Fairchild, G., Snoek, H., & Harold, G. T. (2007). The evidence for a neurobiological model of childhood antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 149.Google Scholar
Wagner, S., Baskaya, Ö., Anicker, N. J., Dahmen, N., Lieb, K., & Tadić, A. (2010). The catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) val158met polymorphism modulates the association of serious life events (SLE) and impulsive aggression in female patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122, 110–117.Google Scholar
Waldman, I. D. (2007). Gene–environment interactions reexamined: Does mother's marital stability interact with the dopamine D2 gene in the etiology of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1117–1128.Google Scholar
Wanklyn, S. G., Day, D. M., Hart, T. A., & Girard, T. A. (2012). Cumulative childhood maltreatment and depression among incarcerated youth impulsivity and hopelessness as potential intervening variables. Child Maltreatment, 17, 306–317.Google Scholar
Warnes, G., Gorjanc, G., Leisch, F., & Man, M. (2012). Genetics: Population Genetics. R package version 1.3.8. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=genetics Google Scholar
Weder, N., Yang, B. Z., Douglas-Palumberi, H., Massey, J., Krystal, J. H., Gelernter, J., et al. (2009). MAOA genotype, maltreatment, and aggressive behavior: The changing impact of genotype at varying levels of trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 417–424.Google Scholar
White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Bartusch, D. J., Needles, D. J., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1994). Measuring impulsivity and examining its relationship to delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, M. J., Morris, C. P., Lawford, B. R., & Young, R. M. (2008). Behavioral phenotypes of impulsivity related to the ANKK1 gene are independent of an acute stressor. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 4, 54.Google Scholar
Widaman, K. F., Helm, J. L., Castro-Schilo, L., Pluess, M., Stallings, M. C., & Belsky, J. (2012). Distinguishing ordinal and disordinal interactions. Psychological Methods, 17, 615.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S. (2014). Long-term consequences of child maltreatment. In Handbook of child maltreatment (pp. 225–247). Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Wiebe, S. A., Espy, K. A., Stopp, C., Respass, J., Stewart, P., Jameson, T. R., et al. (2009). Gene-environment interactions across development: Exploring DRD2 genotype and prenatal smoking effects on self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 45, 31–44.Google Scholar
Wray, N. R., Lee, S. H., Mehta, D., Vinkhuyzen, A. A., Dudbridge, F., & Middeldorp, C. M. (2014). Research review: Polygenic methods and their application to psychiatric traits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1068–1087.Google Scholar
Wright, J. P., Schnupp, R., Beaver, K. M., Delisi, M., & Vaughn, M. (2012). Genes, maternal negativity, and self-control: Evidence of a gene x environment interaction. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 245–260.Google Scholar
Xu, J., Turner, A., Little, J., Bleecker, E. R., & Meyers, D. A. (2002). Positive results in association studies are associated with departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: Hint for genotyping error? Human Genetics, 111, 573–574.Google Scholar
Yaeger, R., Alvial-Bront, A., Abdul, K., Nolan, P. C., Grann, V. R., Birchette, M. G., et al. (2008). Comparing genetic ancestry and self-described race in African Americans born in the United States and in Africa. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, & Prevention, 17, 1329–1338.Google Scholar