Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 October 2017
This article examines how Spain's tourism industry was developed using European Union (EU) grants in the 1980s and 1990s, and how this strategy was later deployed to post-socialist Europe (illustrated using the case of Bulgaria). The article shows that peripheral modernisation was an important mission in the evolution of the EU and urban development for tourism played a major role in two successive post-dictatorial societies. Tourism was considered a key economic sector that addressed the reality of deindustrialisation and also served as a useful metaphor for intra-European mobility and the symbolic power of the leisure economy.
1 Parsons, Craig, A Certain Idea of Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.
2 Schmitter, Philippe C., How to Democratize the European Union . . . and Why Bother? (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2000)Google Scholar.
3 García, Marisol, ‘The Breakdown of the Spanish Urban Growth Model: Social and Territorial Effects of the Global Crisis’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 34, 4 (2010), 970 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Rosamond, Ben, Theories of European Integration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000)Google Scholar.
5 The article makes use of 145 interviews with real estate developers, architects and urban planners, tourism promoters and development officials conducted in Spain and Bulgaria. The interviews took place from 2012–2015 in the cities and regions of Sofia, Varna and Burgas (Bulgaria) and Madrid, Valencia, Alicante and Málaga (Spain). The interviews were also supplemented by ethnographic participant observation (none of which is included in this article). Interviews were conducted in Bulgarian, Spanish and English, depending on the English level of each informant.
6 Urbain, Jean-Didier, At the Beach (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2003)Google Scholar.
7 Linz, Juan J. and Stepan, Alfred, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.
8 Rojek, Chris, Decentring Leisure Rethinking Leisure Theory (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), 41 Google Scholar.
9 Wallerstein, Immanuel, World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.
10 Anderson, Perry, The New Old World (New York: Verso, 2009)Google Scholar.
11 Wallerstein, World-Systems Analysis.
12 Judt, Tony, Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (New York: Penguin, 2006), 257 Google Scholar.
13 Parsons, A Certain Idea of Europe.
14 Gamble, Andrew, The Free Economy and the Strong State (New York: Palgrave, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
15 Marks, Gary, Scharpf, Fritz W., Schmitter, Philippe C. and Streeck, Wolfgang, Governance in the European Union (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
16 Scharpf, Fritz W., Governing in Europe: Effective and Democratic? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
17 Judt, Postwar, 532.
18 In the same speech Delors makes clear that he rejected parallels with the federalism of the United States. He states that the European Community is a unique economic and political experiment that should not be compared to other post-national projects. Also, as was strongly suggested by François Mitterrand several years earlier, Delors endorsed the idea that the European Community's key function would be the economic protection of the welfare state. Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe http://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2002/12/19/5bbb1452-92c7-474b-a7cf-a2d281898295/publishable_en.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
19 Rabinow, Paul, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)Google Scholar.
20 Moyn, Samuel, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (New York: Belknap, 2012)Google Scholar.
21 Walton, John K., ‘Seaside Resorts and International Tourism’, in Zuelow, Eric G.E., ed., Touring Beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History (New York: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar.
22 Berman, Sheri, The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe's Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 181 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
23 By 1993 Spain was receiving 58 per cent of European cohesion funds followed by Ireland, Greece and Portugal, which were all target areas that were prioritised to update infrastructure using approximately 2 billion US dollars annually (Annual Report Cohesion Financial Instrument, Commission of the European Communities 1993/1994). http://aei.pitt.edu/3992/1/3992.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
24 MacLennan, Julio Crespo, Spain and the Process of European Integration, 1957–85: Political Change and Europeanism (London: Palgrave, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 Zuelow, Eric, A History of Modern Tourism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)Google Scholar.
26 Degen, Mónica and García, Marisol, ‘The Transformation of the “Barcelona Model”: An Analysis of Culture, Urban Regeneration and Governance’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 36, 5 (2012), 1022–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
27 Gorsuch, Anne E. and Koenker, Diane P., eds., Turizm: The Russian and East European Tourist under Capitalism and Socialism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.
28 McCathie, Andrew, ‘Spain Seeks to Change Its Tourist Image’, Australian Financial Review, 28 Oct. 1987, 80 Google Scholar.
29 Aronczyk, Melissa, Branding the Nation: The Global Business of National Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
30 Many have persuasively argued that Spain faced a major infrastructural deficit when it emerged from fascism in 1975 because it was never the beneficiary of Marshall Plan financial support in the wake of the Second World War. Indeed, there is an interesting historical parallel between Germany's support for Southern European infrastructural development in the 1980s and 1990s as a means of recognition of all that was accomplished using Marshall Plan funds in that country in the 1950s.
31 López, Isidro and Rodríguez, Emmanuel, ‘The Spanish Model’, New Left Review 2, 69 (2011), 5–29 Google Scholar.
32 Moreno, Luis, The Federalization of Spain (London: Frank Cass, 2001)Google Scholar.
33 Pack, Sasha D., Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe's Peaceful Invasion of Franco's Spain (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 Fuertes, Juan Velarde, ‘La nueva política económica española y el informe del Banco Mundial’, Cuadernos de Información Económica 90 (1994), 209–24Google Scholar.
35 Reforms in the Franco regime during the 1960s empowered a new governmental elite characterised by a technocratic ethos different from their predecessors. This was particularly true for the promotion of tourism. Fraga's tourism strategy of national symbolism mixed with 1960s advertising was a bit too blatant for many Spaniards and when the slogan ‘Spain is Different’ appeared (often accompanied by photos of sevillanas dancers) it quickly became a joke. A simple change of tone could convey all that was still different politically, culturally and economically in Franco's Spain compared to the rest of Europe.
36 Crespo MacLennan, Spain and the Process of European Integration.
37 Commission of the European Communities. European Regional Development Fund, 1986 Report (Archive of European Integration, University of Pittsburgh). http://aei.pitt.edu/5137/1/5137.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
38 Rebollo, J. Fernando Vera and Baidal, Josep A. Ivars, ‘Spread of Low-Cost Carriers: Tourism and Regional Policy Effects in Spain’, Regional Studies 43, 4 (2009), 559–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
39 Aranda, Marta Luque and Martínez, Carmelo Pellejero, ‘Crisis del petróleo, transición a la democracia y frenazo de la expansión turística en España, 1973–1985’, Cuadernos de Historia Contemporánea 37 (2015), 114–44Google Scholar.
40 Member State Report 1994–99, Spain. Centro de Estudios Económicos Tomillo (Archive of European Integration, University of Pittsburgh). http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/doc/obj1/spain.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
41 Robert Martin, ‘Tourists Pour like Rain on Spain’, The Globe and Mail, 16 Feb. 1985.
42 Naredo, José Manuel, ‘El Modelo Inmobiliario Español y Sus Consecuencias’, Boletín CF+S, 44 (2010), 13–27 Google Scholar.
43 Allen, Judith, Barlow, James, Leal, Jesús, Maloutas, Thomas, Padovani, Liliana, Housing and Welfare in Southern Europe (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
44 Allen, Housing in Southern Europe, 34.
45 González, Sara, ‘Bilbao and Barcelona “in Motion”. How Urban Regeneration “Models” Travel and Mutate in the Global Flows of Policy Tourism’, Urban Studies 48, 7 (2011), 1397–1418 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
46 Herbert Muschamp, ‘The Miracle in Bilbao’, New York Times 7 Sept. 1997. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/07/magazine/the-miracle-in-bilbao.html (last visited 20 July 2017).
47 Manera, Carles and Garau-Taberner, Jaume, ‘The Transformation of the Economic Model of the Balearic Islands: The Pioneers of Mass Tourism’, in Segreto, Luciano, Manera, Carles and Pohl, Manfred, eds., Europe at the Seaside: The Economic History of Mass Tourism in the Mediterranean (London: Berghahn, 2009)Google Scholar.
48 Verdery, Katherine, What was Socialism and What Comes Next? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 135.Google Scholar
49 Parsons, Idea of Europe, 26–7.
50 Judt, Postwar, 530.
51 Marks, Scharpf, Schmitter, and Streeck, Governance in the EU.
52 Derluguian, Georgi M., Bourdieu's Secret Admirer in the Caucasus (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)Google Scholar.
53 Stanilov, Kiril, The Post-Socialist City: Urban Form and Space Transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after Socialism (Dordrecht, NL: Springer Verlag, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
54 Dunn, Elizabeth C., Privatizing Poland: Baby Food, Big Business, and the Remaking of Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.
55 European Commission Report, 2002: ‘EU Support for Tourism Enterprises and Tourist Destinations’. http://www.tourisminsights.info/ONLINEPUB/ONLINEP/PDFS/EC%20PDFS/EU%20SUPPORT.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
56 European Commission Report, 2007: ‘The European Tourism Industry in the Enlarged Community: Gaps are Potentials and Opportunities’. file:///Users/maxholleran/Downloads/tourism_2007_sectoral_analysis_en.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
57 European Commission Report, 2000: ‘Towards Quality Coastal Tourism’. http://www.pedz.uni-mannheim.de/daten/edz-h/gdb/00/iqm_coastal_en.pdf (last visited 20 July 2017).
58 European Parliament Debate. 6 Apr. 2011. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2011-0141+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN (last visited 20 July 2017).
59 Kristen Ghodsee, The Red Riviera: Gender, Tourism, and Postsocialism on the Black Sea (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 129.
60 Urbain, At the Beach.
61 US Congress SEED ACT 1989–2009, http://www.seedact.com/files/pdfy/enterprise_funds_at_a_glance.pdf.
62 Zinganel, Michael, Beyer, Elke, Hagemann, Anke, Holidays after the Fall: Seaside Architecture and Urbanism in Bulgaria and Croatia (Berlin: Jovis, 2013)Google Scholar.
63 Todorova, Maria, Imagining the Balkans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.
64 This process was well regarded in Eastern Europe and drawn upon by political leaders from the centre right who admired the role of King Juan Carlos I in the transition (this was particularly true of Bulgaria's former king – Simeon Borisov Saxe-Coburg-Gotha – who also served as Bulgarian Prime Minister 2001–2005). This opinion remains, despite a new generation of Spanish historians who have problematised the process and its insistence on ‘forgetting’.
65 Carles Manera and Jaume Garau-Taberner, ‘Balearic Islands’, 37.
66 Ganev, Venelin I., Preying on the State: The Transformation of Bulgaria after 1989 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.
67 European Parliament Debate. 16 May 2006. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=CRE&reference=20060516&secondRef=ITEM-014&format=XML&language=EN (last visited 20 July 2017).
68 Stanilov, Post-Socialist City, 217.
69 Anderson, Jerome, Hirt, Sonia and Slaev, Alexander, ‘Planning in Market Conditions: The Performance of Bulgarian Tourism Planning during Post-Socialist Transformation’, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 29, 4 (2012), 325 Google Scholar.
70 Svilena Belcheva, ‘Kompleks ot 30 vili se izgrazhda kraĭ Kranevo’ Dnevnik, 27 Mar. 2008. http://www.dnevnik.bg/morski/biznes/2008/03/27/477025_/.
71 Hirt, Sonia A., Iron Curtains: Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Post-Socialist City (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
72 Ditchev, Ivaylo, ‘Sotsialisticheskata urbanizatsiya i krŭgovete na grazhdanstvo’, Sotsiologicheski Problemi 1–2 (2003), 33–63 Google Scholar.
73 Lopez and Rodriguez, Spanish Model.
74 EU Bulgaria Fund Report, 2008. http://ec.europa.eu/cvm/docs/bulgaria_report_funds_20080723_en.pdf.
75 Ibid.
76 Todorova, Imagining the Balkans.
77 Hirt, Iron Curtains.
78 Ganev, Preying on the State.
80 Degen and García, Barcelona Model.
81 National Public Radio, ‘Activists Offer Protest Tour of Spain's Modern Ruins’, 16 Feb. 2013. http://www.npr.org/2013/02/16/172003485/activists-offer-protest-tour-of-spains-modern-ruins (last visited 20 July 2017).
82 Deutsche Welle, ‘Bulgaria Tries to Avoid Mass-Tourism Quagmire’, 12 Aug. 2007. http://www.dw.com/en/bulgaria-tries-to-avoid-mass-tourism-quagmire/a-2728301 (last visited 20 July 2017).
83 Urbain, At the Beach.
84 Anderson, Hirt and Slaev, Planning Market Conditions, 329.
85 Holleran, Max, ‘On the Beach: The Changing Meaning of the Bulgarian Coast after 1989’, City & Society 27, 3 (2015), 232–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
86 Todorova, Imagining the Balkans.