Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T19:32:48.239Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Entangled Transitions: Eastern and Southern European Convergence or Alternative Europes? 1960s–2000s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 October 2017

KIM CHRISTIAENS ,
JAMES MARK  and
JOSÉ. M. FARALDO
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Ever since the fall of the Iron Curtain and the enthusiasm it inspired about the potential for European unity and democracy, it has become fashionable to see post-war European history in terms of convergence. Historians have researched the integration of the European continent into the global, in the context of the Cold War, decolonisation and economic globalisation. Internally, processes of convergence are seen to link the trajectories of nations on a continent where integration eventually trumped the divisions of nationalism, regionalism and the Iron Curtain. This story of an ‘ever deeper and wider union’ was also reflected in the ways in which the transformations of Southern and Eastern Europe were narrated. The idea of a so-called ‘return to Europe’ inspired histories that connected the fall of right-wing authoritarian regimes in the Southern European states of Portugal, Greece and Spain from the mid-1970s with the end of communism in Eastern Europe from 1989. This dominant account has presented Southern and Eastern European ‘peripheries’ moving towards the (Western) European core and its norms, values and models of liberal democracy. Even though some have raised objections to these teleological and Western-dominated narratives of transition they have remained strikingly potent in histories of post-war Europe. Only very recently have they received historiographical critique. Partly this is due to the enduring appeal of centre-periphery approaches that continue to influence intellectual debates about European identity and history. This is also because research on the transitions in Southern and Eastern Europe has for a long time remained rather insular. Historians have been slow to enter a research field that has been dominated by institutional and political approaches, and they have remained more focused on national histories. Where historians of either Eastern or Southern Europe have addressed the transnational or transregional aspects of transition, this has mainly focused on the appeal of the West or its Atlanticist dimensions.

Type
Introduction
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 26 , Special Issue 4: Entangled Transitions , November 2017 , pp. 577 - 599
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For a critical account of these narratives of unity and diversity see Pasture, Patrick, Imagining European Unity since 1000 AD (New York: Palgrave, 2015), 157 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Loth, Wilfried, Building Europe: A History of European Unification (Berlin: De Gruyter-Oldenbourg, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 In the 1990s European history was often written through the lens of East–West convergence; in the last decade this transnational frame has broadened to situate Europe in broader global history. For a critique of earlier absences, see Patel, Klaus Kiran, ‘Provincialising European Union: Co-operation and Integration in Europe in a Historical Perspective’, Contemporary European History, 22, 4 (2013), 649–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Kaelble, Hartmut, Sozialgeschichte Europas. 1945 bis zur Gegenwart (Munich: CH Beck, 2007)Google Scholar.

4 Rupnik, Jacques, ‘The Legacies of Dissent. Charter 77, the Helsinki Effect, and the Emergence of a European Public Space’, in Kind-Kovacs, Friederike and Labov, Jessie, eds., Samizdat, Tamizdat, and Beyond: Transnational Media During and After Socialism (New York: Berghahn, 2013), 324 Google Scholar; Bar, Joanna, ‘From Communism to Democracy; the Concept of Europe in Cracow's Press in the Years 1975–1995’, in Faraldo, José M., Gulińska-Jurgiel, Paulina and Domnitz, Christian, eds., Europa im Ostblock: Vorstellungen und Diskurse (1945–1991) (Cologne: Böhlau, 2008), 221–30Google Scholar; Pinheiro, Teresa, Cieszynska, Beata, and Franco, José Eduardo, eds., Peripheral Identities. Iberia and Eastern Europe Between the Dictatorial Past and the European Present (Chemnitz: Pearl Books, 2011)Google Scholar.

5 Featherstone, Kevin and Kazamias, George, ‘Introduction: Southern Europe and the Process of Europeanization’, South European Society and Politics, 5, 2 (2009), 1–24 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See, for instance, Stone, Dan. Goodbye to all that? The Story of Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 167 Google Scholar; Tony Judt, Postwar. A History of Europe since 1945 (London: Vintage, 2010), 504–34Google Scholar.

7 See, for instance, Ikonomou, Haakon A., Andry, Aurélie and Byberg, Rebekka, ‘Introduction. Towards a New Understanding of Enlargement’, in idem., eds., European Enlargement across Rounds and Beyond Borders (New York: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar; Kornetis, Kostis, ‘Introduction: The End of a Parable? Unsettling the Transitology Model in the Age of Crisis’, Historein, 15, 1 (2015), 5–12 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thum, Gregor, ‘“Europa” im Ostblock. Weiße Flecken in der Geschichte der europäischen Integration’, Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History 1 (2004), 379–95Google Scholar; González, Ángeles Huerta, La Europa periférica. Rusia y España ante el fenómeno de la modernidad (University of Santiago de Compostela Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Rutar, Sabine, ‘Introduction’ in idem, ed., Beyond the Balkans: Towards an Inclusive History of South-Eastern Europe (Zurich: Litverlag, 2007), 9–14 Google Scholar.

8 For an attempt to decentre a history of European cultural linkages, see Cieszyńska, Beata Elżbieta, ed., Iberian and Slavonic Cultures: Contact and Comparison (Lisbon: CompaRes, 2007)Google Scholar.

9 See Villar, Francisco, La Transición Exterior de España. Del aislamiento a la influencia (1976–1996) (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2016)Google Scholar.

10 ‘Eastern Europe’ as a regional descriptor dates back to the Enlightenment. See Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe. The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar. ‘Southern Europe’, by contrast, did not exist before the Second World War – interwar Italy's imperial pretensions faced East, making it quite distinct from the Iberian world: Franzinetti, Guido, ‘Southern Europe and International Politics in the Post-War Period’ in Baumeister, Martin and Sala, Roberto, eds., Southern Europe? Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece from the 1950s to the Present Day (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2015), 221 Google Scholar. For a comparative exploration, see Edward Malefakis, ‘Southern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries: An Historical Overview’, Instituto Juan March de Estudios e Investigaciones, Estudio/Working Paper 1992/35, January 1992. For a useful summary, see Effie Pedaliu, The Making of Southern Europe: An Historical Overview (LSE Report) available online: http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/reports/pdf/SR017/Pedaliu.pdf (last visited 17 Aug. 2017).

11 Indeed, in the interwar period they had been more often seen as peripheries that suffered from similar issues of underdevelopment: Aldcroft, Derek H., Europe's Third World. The European Periphery in the Interwar Years (New York: Routledge, 2006)Google Scholar.

12 Gleason, Abbott, Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Duranti, Marco, The Conservative Human Rights Revolution. European Identity, Transnational Politics, and the Origins of the European Convention (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Duverger, Maurice, De la dictature (Paris: René Julliard, 1961), 7 Google Scholar.

14 Peyrefitte, Alain, Quand la rose se fanera. Du malentendu à l'espoir (Paris: Plon, 1983), 157 Google Scholar; Klimke, Martin, Pekkelder, Jacco and Scharloth, Joachim, eds., Between Prague Spring and French May: Opposition and Revolt in Europe, 1960–1980 (New York: Berghahn, 2011)Google Scholar.

15 Mark, James, Townson, Nigel and Voglis, Polymeris, ‘Inspirations’ in Gildea, Robert, Mark, James and Warring, Annette, eds., Europe's 1968. Voices of Revolt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 99–100 Google Scholar.

16 See, for example, Arrighi, Giovanni, ed., Semi-peripheral Development: The Politics of Southern Europe in the Twentieth Century (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1985), 279 Google Scholar. Szalontai, Balázs, ‘A regionalizmus és a fejlődés problematikája – Egy szemlélet alakváltozásai az Eszmélet oldalain’, Eszmélet, 1 (1996)Google Scholar online.

17 Christofferson, Michael Scott, French Intellectuals Against the Left: The Antitotalitarian Moment of the 1970s (New York: Berghahn, 2004)Google Scholar.

18 Soriano, Víctor Fernández, ‘La CEE face à l'Espagne franquiste. De la mémoire de la guerre civile à la construction politique de l'Europe’, Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, 108, 4 (2010), 85–98 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 De Angelis, Emma and Karamouzi, Eirini, ‘Enlargement and the Historical Origins of the European Community's Democratic Identity, 1961–1978’, Contemporary European History, 25, 3 (2016), 439–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Soriano, Víctor Fernández, Le fusil et l'olivier: Les droits de l'homme en Europe face aux dictatures méditerranéennes (1949–1977) (Brussels: Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2015)Google Scholar; Duranti, , The Conservative Human Rights Revolution, 107–8, 174–5Google Scholar.

20 Fonseca, Ana Mónica, ‘The Federal Republic of Germany and the Portuguese Transition to Democracy (1974–1976)’, Journal of European Integration History, 1 (2009), 35–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Geoffrey Pridham, ‘The Politics of European Communist, Transnational Networks and Democratic Transition in Southern Europe’, in idem, Encouraging Democracy, 212–45; Pinto-Duschinsky, Michael, ‘The Rise of “Political Aid’’’, in Diamond, Larry, Plattner, Marc F., Chu, Yun-han and Tien, Hung-mao, eds., Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies. Regional Perspectives. Volume Two (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 295–324 Google Scholar.

21 See Preston, Paul, The Last Stalinist: The Life of Santiago Carrillo (London: Collins, 2014)Google Scholar; and Pons, Silvio, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo (Turin: Einaudi, 2006)Google Scholar.

22 Delwit, Pascal, Les gauches radicales en Europe. XIXe-XXIe siècles (Brussels: Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2016), 395–8Google Scholar. The electoral and ideological decline of communism in Southern Europe became linked to the region's development in economic and social terms – industrialisation and civil society – understood as a consequence of their journey from insulation to integration in the European Community. Judt, Postwar, 504; Díaz, Víctor Pérez, El retorno de la sociedad civil: Respuestas sociales a la transición política, la crisis económica y los cambios culturales de España, 1975–1985 (Madrid: Colección Tablero, 1987)Google Scholar.

23 Maxwell, Kenneth, ‘Portugal's Revolution of the Carnations, 1974–75’, in Roberts, Adam and Garton-Ash, Timothy, eds., Civil Resistance and Power Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 161 Google Scholar.

24 Graham, Helen and Quiroga, Alejandro, ‘After the Fear was Over? What Came after Dictatorships in Spain, Greece and Portugal’, in Stone, Dan, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 505–25Google Scholar.

25 Pinto, António Costa and Morlino, Leonardo, eds., Dealing with the Legacy of Authoritarianism: The “Politics of the Past” in Southern European Democracies (London: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar.

26 On the wider memory influences in Spain, see Baer, Alejandro and Sznaider, Natan, Memory and Forgetting in the Post-Holocaust Era (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar, especially chapter 3.

27 Courtois, Stéphane, Paczkowski, Andrezj, Panne, Jean Louis and Werth, Nicolas, eds., Le livre noir du communisme. Crimes, terreur, et repression (Paris: Laffont, 1997)Google Scholar.

28 Panourgiá, Neni, Dangerous Citizens: The Greek Left and the Terror of the State (New York: Fordham University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Graham and Quiroga, ‘After the Fear was Over?’, 517.

29 For the production of the idea of Southern Europe in this period, see both Guido Franzinetti, ‘Southern Europe’ and Piermattei, Massimo, ‘Ptolemaics and Copernicans. Southern Europe and the European Integration Process’, in Baumeister, Martin and Sala, Roberto, eds., Southern Europe? Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece from the 1950s to the Present Day (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2015)Google Scholar. For the construction of ‘Southern Europe’ in expert discourses see ‘Die Verhandlung des Westens. Wissenseliten und die Heterogenität Westeuropas nach 1945’, special issue Comparativ, 25 (2015) http://research.uni-leipzig.de/comparativ/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=150&Itemid=29 (last visited 17 Aug. 2017); on units of regional comparison, see Schmitter, Philippe C. and Karl, Terry Lynn, ‘Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should they Go?’, Slavic Review, 53,1 (1994), 173–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Huntington, Samuel, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

31 Seers, Dudley and Vaitsos, Constantine, eds., The Second Enlargement of the EEC. The Integration of Unequal Partners (London: Macmillan Press, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 See, for instance, Pridham, Geoffrey, ‘The International Dimension of Democratisation: Theory, Practice and Inter-Regional Comparisons’, in Pridham, Geoffrey, Herring, Eric and Sanford, George, eds., Building Democracy? The International Dimensions of Democratisation in Eastern Europe (London: Leicester University Press, 1997), 8 Google Scholar; Whitehead, Laurence, The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Royo, Sebastián, ‘The Challenges of EU Integration: Iberian Lessons for Eastern Europe’, in Roy, Joaquín and Domínguez, Roberto, eds., Towards the Completion of Europe: Analysis and Perspectives of the New European Union Enlargement (Miami: University of Miami, 2006)Google Scholar.

34 Krzysztof Pomian, ‘Western prejudices, Polish Fears’, Transit. Europäische Revue, 2003: http://www.eurozine.com/western-prejudices-polish-fears/ (last visited 17 Aug. 2017).

35 Loth, Building Europe, 433.

36 Hermet, Guy, ‘La democratisation à l'amiable: de l'Espagne à la Pologne’, Commentaire, 50 (1990), 279–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Machcewicz, Pawel, ‘Hiszpanska droga do demokracji’, Tygodnik Solidarność 3 (1989), 4 Google Scholar; Adam Michnik, ‘La derrota de Stalin. La vía española como la esperanza para Polonia’, El País, 23 Mar. 1989; Kieniewicz, Jan, ‘Hiszpania-przykład czy wyzwanie’, Przeglad Powszechny, 1 (1990), 92–104 Google Scholar; Kieniewicz, Jan, ‘Doświadczenia hiszpańskie w rzeczywistości polskiej’, Polska w Europie, 21 (1996), 102–14Google Scholar; Filar, Dariusz, ‘Polonia es diferente, czyli Socjoekonomiczna paralela Polski z Hiszpania u schyłku wieku totalizmów’, Przegląd Powszechny 1 (1990), 105–16Google Scholar; Dobek-Ostrowska, Bogusława, Hiszpania i Polska: elity polityczne w okresie przejścia do demokracji. Analiza porównawcza (Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1996)Google Scholar. Some influences and contacts – mainly of an anecdotal nature – were referenced in works about transitions, see Gómez, Javier Tusell and Carmona, Álvaro Soto, eds., Historia de la Transición y consolidación democrática en España (1975–1986) (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1995), 3–14 Google Scholar. Some bilateral comparisons explore the entanglements, albeit briefly, see Sánchez, Guillermo A. Pérez, ‘Transiciones y europeísmo: de la Península Ibérica a la Europa Central’, Cuadernos de Historia Contemporánea (Madrid), 24 (2002), 317–33Google Scholar; Enríquez, Carmen Gonzáles, Crisis y cambio en Europa del Este. La transición húngara a la democracia (Madrid: CIS, 2003)Google Scholar.

37 See Roberts and Garton-Ash, eds., Civil Resistance & Power Politics.

38 O'Donnell, Guillermo and Schmitter, Philippe, eds., Transitions from Authoritarianism: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986)Google Scholar; Linz, Juan and Stepan, Alfred, Democratic Transitions and Consolidation: Eastern Europe, Southern Europe and Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Farkas, Vajk, ‘Rendszerváltás Spanyol Módra. Hasonlóságok és különbözõségek a spanyol és a Magyar jogállami átmenetben’ Iustum Aequum Salutare, V. (2009/3), 171–94Google Scholar.

39 Other approaches to comparative transition include: Stoner, Kathryn and McFaul, Michael, eds., Transitions to Democracy: A Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013)Google Scholar. An early comparison of politics of memory is Malefakis, Edward ‘Spain and its Francoist Heritage’, in Herz, John H., ed., From Dictatorship to Democracy, Coping with the Legacies of Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism (London: Greenwood Press 1982)Google Scholar.

40 De Brito, Alexandra Barahona, Enriquez, Carmen Gonzàlez and Aguilar, Paloma, eds., The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; i Coromines, Jordi Guixe, Past and Power. Public Policies on Memory. Debates, from Global to Local (Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2015)Google Scholar; Raimundo, Filipa, ‘Dealing with the Past in Central and Southern European Democracies: Comparing Spain and Poland’, in Mink, Georges and Neumayer, Laure, eds., History, Memory and Politics in Central and Eastern Europe. Memory Games (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 136–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Troebst, Stefan and Ruchniewicz, Krzysztof, eds., Diktaturbewältigung und nationale Selbstvergewisserung - Geschichtskulturen in Polen und Spanien im Vergleich (Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 2004)Google Scholar and Großbölting, Thomas and Hofmann, Dirk, Vergangenheit in der Gegenwart. Vom Umgang mit Diktaturerfahrungen in Ost- und Westeuropa (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2008)Google Scholar. See also Troebst's ‘comparison of comparisons’ of memories of the dictatorships in South and East in his Diktaturerinnerung und Geschichtskultur im östlichen und südlichen Europa. Ein Vergleich der Vergleiche (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2010).

41 See also Booth, Marilyn, ‘25 Years of Revolution Comparing Revolt and Transition from Europe 1989 to the Arab World’, Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 23 (2014), 99–103 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jérôme Heurtaux, ‘Comparer « transitions » postcommunistes et révoltes arabes. Un point de vue semi-sceptique’, CERI, 2016: http://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/fr/content/dossiersduceri/comparer-transitions-postcommunistes-et-revoltes-arabes-un-point-de-vue-semi-sceptique (last visited 17 Aug. 2017); Conferencia sobre Transición y Consolidación Democráticas (Madrid: Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE), Siddharth Mehta Ediciones, 2002).

42 For such comparative histories, see, for example, Wiarda, Howard J., Herspring, Dale Roy and Skelley, Esther M., Development on the Periphery: Democratic Transitions in Southern and Eastern Europe (Boulder, CO.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006)Google Scholar; Bauerkamper, Arnd, ‘Wege zur europäischen Geschichte. Ertrage und Perspektiven der vergleichs- und transfergeschichtlichen Forschung’, in Arndt, Agnes, Haberlen, Joachim C. and Reinecke, Christiane, eds., Vergleichen, Verflechten, Verwirren? Europäische Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Theorie und Praxis (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 33–60 Google Scholar.

43 Miguel Ángel Ruiz Carnicer, ‘Leftist Fascists, Rightist Communists: The Case of Spanish Fascists Confronted with Third World Communism and Reformists in Eastern Europe’ (paper presented at ‘Entangled Transitions’ conference, University of Leuven, 8–10 Dec. 2014).

44 Bartošek, Karel, Zpráva o putování v komunistických archivech: Paříž–Praha (1948–1968) (Prague: Paseka, 2009), 103 Google Scholar.

45 Rizas, Sotiris, The Rise of the Left in Southern Europe: Anglo-American Responses (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016)Google Scholar.

46 Dominik Trutowski, ‘Poland and Spain “Entangled”. Political Learning in Transitions to Democracy’ (paper presented at the ‘Entangled Transitions’ conference, University of Leuven, 8–10 Dec. 2014).

47 Michnik, Adam, ‘A New Evolutionism’, in idem., Letters from Prison and Other Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 135–48Google Scholar; Michnik, Adam, ‘Le nouvel évolutionnisme’, in Kende, Peter and Pomian, Krzysztof, eds., 1956: Varsovie-Budapest. La deuxième revolution d'Octobre (Paris: Seuil, 1976), 201–14Google Scholar.

48 Brier, Robert, ‘Broadening the Cultural History of the Cold War: The Emergence of the Polish Workers’ Defense Committee and the Rise of Human Rights’, Journal of Cold War Studies 15, 4 (2013), 104–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 Lazar, Marc, ‘La gauche ouest-européenne et l'année 1968 en Tchécoslovaquie: Les cas français et italien’, in Marès, Antoine, ed., La Tchécoslovaquie, sismographe de l'Europe (Paris: Institut d'Etudes Slaves, 2009), 177–93Google Scholar.

50 Trutowski, ‘Poland and Spain “Entangled”’.

51 Christiaens, Kim, Goddeeris, Idesbald and García, Magaly Rodríguez, ‘A Global Perspective on the European Mobilization for Chile (1970s–1980s)’, in idem, eds., European Solidarity with Chile, 1970s–1980s (Bern: Peter Lang, 2014), 23, 7–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

52 On exporting the model, see Encarnación, Omar G., ‘Democratising Spain. Lessons for American Democratic Promotion’, in Alonso, Gregorio and Muro, Diego, eds., The Politics and Memory of Democratic Transition. The Spanish Model (New York: Routledge, 2011), 236–56Google Scholar.

53 See also the role of the story of Instituto de Estudios Soviéticos: http://elpais.com/diario/1990/10/26/espana/656895608_850215.html (last visited 27 July 2017). It was inaugurated in 1990 when Gorbachev visited Spain to encourage Spanish-Soviet cooperation. On its board were many social democratic politicians who had been involved in spreading the message of the Spanish transición.

54 Kenney, Padraic, A Carnival of Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Pinto, António Costa, ‘The Authoritarian Past and South European Democracies: An Introduction’, South European Society and Politics, 15, 3 (2010), 339–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 ‘Stenogramma zasedaniya Komissii Politbyuro TsK KPSS po dopolnitel'nomu izucheniyu materialov, svyazannykh s repressiyami, imevshimi mesto v period 30-40-kh I nachala 50-kh gg’, 29 May 1990, in Reabilitatsiya. Kak eto bylo. Dokumenty Politbyuro TsK KPSS, stenogrammy zasedaniya Komissi Politbyuro TsK KPSS po dopolnitel'nomu izucheniyu materialov, svyazannykh s repressiyami, imevshimi mesto v period 30-40-kh i nachala 50-kh godov, i drugie materialy. Tom 3. (Moscow: Materik, 2004), 450.

56 Salm, Christian, Transnational Socialist Networks in the 1970s: European Community Development Aid and Southern Enlargement (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lobo, Marina Costa and Magalhães, Pedro C., ‘From “Third Wave” to “Third Way”: Europe and the Portuguese Socialists (1975–1999)’, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans Online, 3, 1 (2001), 25–35 Google Scholar; Sánchez, Antonio Muñoz, ‘The Friedrich Ebert Foundation and the Spanish Socialists during the Transition to Democracy, 1975–1982’, Contemporary European History, 25, 1 (2016), 143–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rother, Bernd, ‘Exporting Democracy? European Social Democrats and the European Community's Southern Enlargement’, in Hiepel, Claudia, ed., Europe in a Globalising World. Global Challenges and European Responses in the »long« 1970s (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2014), 185–200 Google Scholar.

57 Szelényi, Iván and Ladányi, János, ‘Prospects and Limits on New Social Democracy in Transitional Societies of Central Europe’, Bozóki, András and Ishiyama, John T., eds., The Communist Successor Parties of Central and Eastern Europe (London: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), 47 Google Scholar.

58 This was part of a broader fascination with authoritarian routes to globalisation in Eastern Europe that included Pinochet's Chile and the East Asian Tigers. See, for example, Rupprecht, Tobias, ‘Formula Pinochet. Chilean Lessons for Russian Liberal Reformers during the Soviet Collapse’, Journal of Contemporary History, 51, 1 (2015), 165–186 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mark, James and Rupprecht, Tobias, ‘1989 in Global Context’, in Fürst, Juliane, Pons, Silvio and Selden, Mark, eds., The Cambridge History of Communism Volume 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 227 Google Scholar.

59 Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães, O socialismo e o futuro da Península (Lisbon: Livros Horizonte, 1969)Google Scholar; Magone, José M., The Developing Place of Portugal in the European Union (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2004)Google Scholar.

60 Wetzel, Anne and Orbie, Jan, eds., The Substance of EU Democracy Promotion: Concepts and Cases (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For such a narrative, see also, for example, José Manuel Barroso's speech commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of 1956: ‘Acting Together: The Legacy of 1956’, Budapest, 23 October 2006 at http://ec.europa.eu/dorie/fileDownload.do;jsessionid=d7QJlklkU6sQYNwIDUgDVo3zCkc2wKqZj0oQB0LM2cRnbGEAeExh!-898031139?docId=155350&cardId=155350 (last visited 12 July 2017).

61 As far as Germany's role was concerned see Del Pero's and Guirao's and Gavin's chapters in Mario Del Pero, Víctor Gavín, Fernando Guirao and Antonio Varsori, eds., Democrazie. L‘Europa meridionale e la fine delle dittature (Firenze: Le Monnier, 2010); del Pero, Mario, ‘A European Solution for a European Crisis. The International Implications of Portugal's Revolution’, Journal of European Integration History, 15, 1 (2009), 15–34 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sánchez, Antonio Muñoz, ‘A European Answer to the Spanish Question: The SPD and the End of the Franco Dictatorship’, Journal of European Integration History, 15, 1 (2009), 77–94 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Díaz, Carlos Sanz, ‘La ayuda al desarrollo de la República Federal de Alemania a España (1956-1970)’, Historia Contemporánea, 30 (2005), 179–203 Google Scholar; Aschmann, Birgit, ‘The Reliable Ally. Germany Supports Spain's European Integration Efforts 1957–1967’, Journal of European Integration History, 7, 1 (2011), 37–51 Google Scholar.

63 Fonseca, Ana Mónica, ‘The Federal Republic of Germany and the Portuguese Transition to Democracy (1974–1976)’, Journal of European Integration History, 15, 1 (2009), 35–56 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hertel, Patricia, ‘Ein anderes Stück Europa? Der Mittelmeertourismus in Expertendiskursen der Nachkriegszeit, 1950–1980’, Comparativ-Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung, 25, 3 (2015), 75–93 Google Scholar.

64 Buchanan, Tom, ‘Human Rights, the Memory of War and the Making of a ‘European’ Identity, 1945–1975’ in Conway, Martin and Patel, Kiran Klaus, eds., Europeanization in the Twentieth Century. Historical Approaches (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 166 Google Scholar; Anastasakis, Othon, ‘The EU's Political Conditionality in the Western Balkans: Towards a More Pragmatic Approach’, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 8, 4 (2008), 365–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Varsori, Antonio, ‘Enlargement Disenchanted? Two Transitions to Democracy and Where We Are with Today's Crisis’, and Helene Sjursen, ‘Enlargement and Identity: Studying Reasons’, both in Ikonomou, Haakon A., Andry, Aurélie and Byberg, Rebekka, eds., European Enlargement across Rounds and Beyond Borders (New York: Routledge, 2017), 19–35, 57–74Google Scholar.

66 Víctor Fernández Soriano, ‘Bringing up Political Conditionality. The European Community in front of Southern and Eastern Transitions’, paper presented at ‘Entangled Transitions: Between Eastern and Southern Europe, 1960s–2014’, Leuven, 8–10 Dec. 2014.

67 See for instance, Hall, John. A. L., ‘The Transformation of Modern Europe: Banalities of Success’ in Paul, T.V., ed., International Relations Theory and Regional Transformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 233–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 239; Lundestad, Geir, ‘The European Role at the Beginning and Particularly the End of the Cold War’, in Njølstad, Olav, ed., The Last Decade of the Cold War. From Conflict Escalation to Conflict Transformation (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 60–79 Google Scholar.

68 See, for instance, Rajak, Svetozar, Botsiou, Konstantina E., Karamouzi, Eirini and Hatzivassiliou, Evanthis, eds., The Balkans and the Cold War (London: Palgrave, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

69 José M. Faraldo, ‘Azyl Ariberta Heima. Powojenna Hiszpania’, in Tygodnik Powszechny, 39 (24 Sept. 2006), 14.

70 Uscatescu, George, Europa Ausente (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1957)Google Scholar; Eiroa, Matilde, ‘El comunismo, sostén del anticomunismo: el Telón de Acero, España y la Guerra Fría’, Cuadernos Constitucionales de la Cátedra Fadrique Furió Ceriol, 45/46 (2003–2004), 199–210 Google Scholar.

71 van Boeschoten, Riki, ‘From “Janissaries” to “Hooligans”: Greek and Macedonian Refugee Children in Communist Hungary’, in Todorova, Maria N., ed., Remembering Communism: Genres of Representation (New York: Social Science Research Council, 2010), 155–86Google Scholar.

72 Harsányi, Iván, ‘A chilei és a dél-európai baloldal közti kapcsolat és kölcsönhatás’, Múltunk (2008/4), 246–7Google Scholar.

73 Alacevich, Michele, ‘Postwar Development in the Italian Mezzogiorno. Analyses and Policies’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 18, 1 (2013), 90–112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Michele Alacevich, ‘Planning Peace. Development Policies in Postwar Europe’, paper presented at ‘Development and Underdevelopment in Post-War Europe’, workshop held at Columbia University, 10 Oct. 2014.

75 Francisco José Rodrigo Luelmo, ‘España y el proceso de la CSCE: la conferencia de Helsinki (1969–1975)’, Ph.D. thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 2015, 148–74.

76 Sanz, Rosa María Pardo, ‘La politique extérieure espagnole de la fin du franquisme et son héritage sur la transition démocratique’, Histoire@Politique, 29, 2 (2016), 125–140 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 There were other examples of such interactions: in 1989 Italy's ‘Adriatic Initiative’ attempted to address Yugoslavia's economic plights and political instability. See Varsori, Antonio, L'Italia e la fine della Guerra fredda. La politica estera dei governi Andreotti (1989–1992) (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2013)Google Scholar.

78 Christiaens, Kim, Goddeeris, Idesbald and Goedertier, Wouter, ‘Inspirées par le Sud: Les mobilisations transnationales Est-Ouest pendant la guerre froide’, Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, 109, 1 (2010), 155–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 United Federation of Free Hungarian Workers, 1965, no. 1821, International Union of Socialist Youth, International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam.

80 Oliveira, Pedro Aires, ‘A Sense of Hopelessness? Portuguese Oppositionists Abroad in the Final Years of the Estado Novo, 1968–1974’, Contemporary European History, 26, 3 (2017), 465–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 Mark et al, ‘Inspirations’ in Gildea et al. Europe's 1968, 84–5; Hassner, Pierre, ‘L'Europe de l'est entre l'est et L'Europe’, Revue française de science politique, 19, 1 (1969), 101–44, 117CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 Postigo, Paloma Serrano, ‘El giro hacia el Este en la política exterior española tras el franquismo. El ejemplo del reencuentro con Polonia’, in Juberías, Carlos Flores, ed., España y la Europa oriental: tan lejos, tan cerca: actas del V Encuentro Español de Estudios sobre la Europa Oriental (Valencia: Publicacions de la Universitat de València, 2009), 354–55Google Scholar.

83 Papadogiannis, Nikolaos, ‘Political Travel Across the “Iron Curtain” and Communist Youth Identities in West Germany and Greece in the 1970s and 1980s’, European Review of History/Revue européenne d'histoire, 23, 3 (2016), 526–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Kourkouvelas, Lykourgos, ‘ Détente as a Strategy: Greece and the Communist World, 1974–9’, The International History Review, 35, 5 (2015), 1052–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

85 F. Stephen Larrabee, ‘Greece's Balkan Policy in a New Strategic Era’, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 5, 3 (2005), 405–25.

86 Patel, ‘Provincialising European Union’.

87 Kornetis, Kostis, ‘Cuban Europe’? Greek and Iberian Tiersmondisme in the “Long 1960s”’, Journal of Contemporary History, 50, 3 (2015), 486–515 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This association has a long genealogy: in the 1930s, Paul Rodenstein-Rodan, one of the fathers of developmental economics, identified five vast internationally depressed areas; the far East, Africa, the Caribbean, the Middle East and Eastern and Southern-Eastern Europe.

88 See for instance: Sakkas, John, ‘The Greek Dictatorship, the USA and the Arabs, 1967–74’, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans, 9, 3 (2004), 245–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 Uzal, María José Henríquez, ¡Viva la verdadera amistad! Franco y Allende, 1970–1973 (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 2014)Google Scholar.

90 Palieraki, Eugenia, ‘“Le Chili est proche”. Les mouvements antidictatoriaux grecs et les septembres chiliens’, Monde(s), 2, 8 (2015), 45–64 Google Scholar.

91 Christiaens, Kim and Goddeeris, Idesbald, ‘Solidarność and Latin America in the 1980s: Encounters, Conflicts and Failures’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 56 (2016), 445–61Google Scholar.

92 Bogdan Iacob, ‘South-East by Global South: The Balkans, UNESCO and the Cold War’, in James Mark, Steffi Marung and Artemy M. Kalinovsky, eds., Alternative Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Postcolonial World (forthcoming).

93 Papastamkou, Sofia, ‘Greece between Europe and the Mediterranean, 1981–1986. The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and the Greek-Libyan Relations as Case Studies’, Journal of European Integration History, 21, 1 (2015), 49–69 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 See, for instance, Calandri, Elena, Caviglia, Daniele and Varsori, Antonio, eds., Détente in Cold War Europe: Politics and Diplomacy in the Mediterranean and the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris, 2015)Google Scholar. When Spain joined the European Community in 1986, it made significant efforts to bring the ‘Mediterranean question’ to the attention of Brussels. Further suggestions for a more institutionalised Mediterranean cooperation appeared within the frame of the Barcelona Process in the 1990s, leading to the creation of the Union for the Mediterranean in 2008. See Kennedy, Paul, The Spanish Socialist Party and the Modernisation of Spain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013), 120 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

95 See, for instance, on this ‘Mediterranean’ identity: Arab Peoples’ Conference in Tripoli, 1977, Palestina, S. 1, B. 4, Fasc. 11, Fondazione Lelio e Lisli Basso Issoco, Rome.

96 Hassner, Pierre, ‘L'avenir des alliances en Europe’, Revue française de science politique, 26, 6 (1976), 1049 CrossRefGoogle Scholar Pierre Hassner, ‘L'avenir prévisible des deux alliances en Europe’, Le Monde diplomatique, June 1977, 8.

97 Kanter, Katherine, ‘Spain's Socialists: Transition to a Coup?’, Executive Intelligence Review, 9, 44 (16 Nov. 1982), 41 Google Scholar; Kuniholm, Bruce. R., ‘Rhetoric and Reality in the Aegean: U.S. Policy Options Toward Greece and Turkey’, SAIS Review, 6, 1 (1986), 137 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hassner, ‘L'avenir des alliances en Europe’.

98 Michnik, Adam, Letters from Freedom: Post-Cold War Realities and Perspectives (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1998), 99 Google Scholar; Brier, Robert, ‘Poland's Solidarity as a Contested Symbol of the Cold War: Transatlantic Debates After the Polish Crisis’, in Patel, Kiran Klaus and Weisbrode, Kenneth, eds., European Integration and the Transatlantic Community in the 1980s (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 99–100 Google Scholar.

99 Pasture, Patrick, ‘Jan Kułakowski, From Exile to International Trade Union Leader and Diplomat’, in Dumoul, Michel and Goddeeris, Idesbald, eds., Intégration ou représentation? Les exiles polonais en Belgique et la construction européenne (Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia-Bruylant, 2005), 99–120 Google Scholar; Christiaens, Kim, ‘The ICFTU and the WCL: The International Coordination of Solidarity’, in Goddeeris, Idesbald, ed., Western European Trade Unions and the Polish Crisis, 1980–1982 (Lanham: Lexington, 2010), 101–27Google Scholar.

100 See, for instance, Vladislav, Jan, ‘Cultural Resistance: Parallel Literature in Czechoslovakia’, in Tismaneanu, Vladimir and Saphiro, Judith, eds., Debates on the Future of Communism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1991), 135–41, 139CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 Jasper M. Trautsch, ‘Tagungsbericht: The South in Postwar Europe: Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal, 27.06.2013 – 28.06.2013 Rom’, H-Soz-Kult, 1 Oct. 2013. www.hsozkult.de/conferencereport/id/tagungsberichte-5048 (last visited 26 July 2017).

102 Thomas, Maria, ‘Twentieth-Century Catholicisms: Religion as Prison, as Haven, as Clamp’, in Graham, Helen, ed., Interrogating Francoism: History and Dictatorship in Twentieth-Century Spain (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 27–48, 40Google Scholar; Graham, Helen, The War and its Shadow: Spain's Civil War in Europe's Long Twentieth Century (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

103 Sapelli, Giulio, Southern Europe since 1945. Tradition and Modernity in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Turkey (London: Longman, 1995), 181 Google Scholar; Therborn, Göran, European Modernity and Beyond. The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945–2000 (London: Sage, 1995), 300 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Gorbatschow, Michail, Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1995), 763 Google Scholar.

105 Guido Franzinetti, ‘Southern Europe and International Politics’, 226–8.

106 Poole, Peter A., Europe Unites: The EU's Eastern Enlargement (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003), 177 Google Scholar.

107 On the return of peripheries in Europe after 2008, see Ballinger, Pamela, ‘Whatever Happened to Eastern Europe? Revisiting Europe's Eastern Peripheries’, East European Politics and Societies and Cultures, 31, 1 (2017), 60–1Google Scholar.

108 Ther, Philipp, Europe since 1989. A History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), 248–58Google Scholar.