Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T17:03:48.548Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956–1970

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2009

Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley
Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley
Affiliation:
Georgetown University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Most of the extraordinary waves of terror which have swept many Latin American societies since 1970 have occurred in guerrilla-based insurgencies or even civil wars. Because of the massive body counts produced during these confrontations between revolutionaries and counterrevolutionaries based in or linked with a government, human rights organizations have issued a long series of reports about terror—especially that which has been carried out by incumbent regimes and death squads—and which has been supplemented by the exposés of the guerrillas themselves. Amnesty International, the Human Rights group in the Organization of American States (OAS), and Americas Watch have been the major international actors documenting the wave of terror. Many independent national groups, such as El Salvador's “Socorro Juridico” and other human rights organizations linked with church bodies have undertaken that more perilous task at home.

Type
The Politics of Terror
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , April 1990 , pp. 201 - 237
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Ernesto “Che” Guevara, , The Complete Bolivian Diaries of Che Guevara and Other Captured Documents, James, Daniel, ed. (New York: Stein and Day, 1968), s.v. “End of May, 1967.”Google Scholar

2 Asprey, Robert, War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History, 2 vols. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975).Google Scholar

3 See Bond, James E., The Rules of Riot: Internal Conflict and the Laws of War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), for a full discussion of the rules of war and possible applicability to guerrilla warfare.Google Scholar

4 Walter, Eugene Victor, Terror and Resistance (New York: Oxford, 1969),Google Scholar Chs. 1, 2. For some less formal observations about the social functions of terror, see Mercado, Rogger, Las Guerrillas del Peru (Lima: Fondo de Cultura Popular, 1967), 160–1,Google Scholar and Béjar, Héctor, “Ne pas surestimer ses forces,” Partisans (Paris), 38 (07–Google Scholar09 1967), 111.Google Scholar

5 Huberman, Leo and Sweezy, Paul, “Cuba: Anatomy of a Revolution,” Monthly Review, 12 (07–09 1960), 29.Google Scholar

6 Thomas, Hugh, Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 1044;Google ScholarGoldenberg, Boris, The Cuban Revolution and Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1965), 144.Google Scholar

7 Ruz, Fidel Castro, Revolutionary Struggle: Vol. 1 of The Selected Works of Fidel Castro, Bonachea, Rolando E. and Valdes, Nelson P., eds. (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1972), 375, 399;Google ScholarThomas, , Cuba, 972, 999.Google Scholar

8 Bonachea, Ramón L. and Martin, Marta San, The Cuban Insurrection, 1952–1959 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1974), 134–7, 151–2.Google Scholar

9 Bonachea, and San, Martin, The Cuban Insurrection, 270, 192, 276;Google ScholarMaschke, Ginter, Kritik des Guerillero (Frankfurt, Germany: S. Fischer, 1973), 85;Google ScholarThomas, , Cuba, 920.Google Scholar

10 Thomas, , Cuba, 335;Google ScholarLópez, Ramón Barquín, Las Luchas Guerrilleras en Cuba, 2 vols. (Madrid: Plaza Mayor, 1975), vol. 1, 14–15;Google ScholarNewsweek, 17 June 1957, 60.Google Scholar

11 Such tales can be told only when there are survivors. This and other stories can be found in Franqui, Carlos, The Twelve (New York: Lyle Stuart, 1968).Google Scholar

12 Valsalice, Luigi, Guerriglia e Politica: L' esempio del Venezuela (Florence, Italy: Valmartina Editore, 1973), 135, n.12;Google ScholarCordero, Efraín Labana, TO-3: Campo Antiguerrillero (Caracas: Ediciones Bárbara, 1969), 110Google Scholar (“more than 200”); Guevara, Angel Raúl, Los Cachorros del Pentagono (Caracas: Salvador de la Plaza, 1973), 8 (“more than 1,000” dead [?])Google Scholar; Maspero, François, ed., Avec Douglas Bravo dans les Maquis Vénézuéliens (Paris: François Maspero, 1968), 52Google Scholar (the interlocutor with Bravo here could well be Regis Debray); Lartéguy, Jean, The Guerrillas (New York: World Press, y), 195;Google ScholarPetkoff, Teodoro, “Pre-Election Climate in Venezuela (An Interview with Comrade Teodoro Petkov [sic]),” World Marxist Review (England), 11 (04, 1968), 30.Google Scholar Betancourt stated once (see Daily Journal [Caracas, 21 June 1963]),Google Scholar that according to “certain delirious, cheap literature” the government was staging “mass murders” of peasants, and rejected such allegations. One should be open-minded on such matters and not accept these data uncritically, since the guerrillas are the usual source. This need for a critical eye is a point forcefully driven home by the name of the original publisher of Cabieses's work (see note 15)- “FALN publications”; see Lindenberg, Klaus, “Zur Krise der Revolutiondren Linken in Lateinamerika: Das Beispiel Venezuela,” Vierteljahresberichte—Forschungsinstitut der Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FFES), 33 (09 1968), 288.Google Scholar

13 For bombing reports in the news, see El Nacional (Caracas), 3 02 1963, 4 04 1963Google Scholar (both Falcón), 30 October 1964 (Trujillo), 17 November 1964 (Falcón), 9 June 1965 (Lara). Bombing clearly frightened nearby peasants even when not striking their villages; see, for example, El Nacional, 6 April 1963,Google Scholar and Valsalice, Guerriglia e Politica, 126.Google Scholar Also see Harding, Timothy F. and Landau, Saul, “Terrorism, Guerrilla Warfare and the Democratic Left in Venezuela,” Studies on the Left, 4 (Fall 1964), 125.Google Scholar

14 Guevara, , Los Cachorros del Pentagono, 164, 166;Google ScholarValsalice, , Guerriglia e Politica, 135.Google Scholar

15 Examples abound in Manuel Donoso, Cabieses, Venezuela, Okey! (Santiago, Chile: Ediciones del Litoral, 1963).Google Scholar One DIGEPOL killing of a Communist by torture was revealed by the Judicial and Technical Police (PTJ); see Carrera, J. “The Murderers of Alberto Lovera Will Be Punished,” World Marxist Review (England), 9 (06 1966), 46–47.Google Scholar

16 Guevara, , Los Cachorros del Pentagono, 32.Google Scholar The translation attempts to capture flavor rather than exact denotation. Lists of killing and torture victims of government—whatever their accuracy—can be found in Cabieses, , Venezuela, Okey!, 269–76,Google Scholar and Vicente, Eduardo, “On the FALN,” Studies on the Left, 5 (Winter 1965), 99.Google Scholar

17 Cabieses, , Venezuela, Okey!, 203;Google ScholarSlote, Walter H., “Case Analysis of a Revolutionary,” in Bonilla, Frank and Michelena, Jose A. Silva, A Strategy for Research on Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967), 304.Google Scholar

18 Guevara, , Los Cachorros del Pentagono, 118–20.Google Scholar

19 Daily Journal (Caracas) 4 February 1966, 9 March 1966, 3 06 1966;Google ScholarEl Nacional (Caracas) 4 May 1962, 13 August 1965.Google Scholar

20 Cockcroft, James D. and Vicente, Eduardo, “Venezuela and the FALN Since Leoni,” Monthly Review, 17 (11 1965), 36;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMaspero, , Avec Douglas Bravo, 53.Google Scholar

21 Zago, Angela, Aqui No Ha Pasado Nada (Caracas: El Sobre, 1972), 111–46, 149–50, 1567, 170.Google Scholar

22 Maspero, , Avec Douglas Bravo, 53;Google ScholarCabieses, , Venezuela Okey!, 204–5;Google ScholarGall, Norman, “Teodoro Petkoff: The Crisis of the Professional Revolutionary–Part II: A New Party,” American Universities Field Staff Reports—East Coast South America Series [hereafter called AUFSR—ECSA], 17:9 (08 1973), 6.Google Scholar On the llanos events, see the memoir by Zamora, Antonio, Memoria(s) de la Guerrilla Venezolana (Caracas: Síntesis Dosmil, 1972), 88, 99, 125 (quote).Google Scholar

23 El Nacional (Caracas), 27 August 1965.Google Scholar

24 Several estimates are gathered by Peralta, Gabriel Aguilera, La Violencia en Guatemala como Fenómeno Político (Cuernavaca, Mexico: Centro Interdisciplinario de Documentation, 1971), p. 4/18.Google Scholar Also see Lamberg, Robert F., Die Castristiche Guerilla in Lateinamerika: Theorie und Praxis eines Revolutionären Modells (Hannover, Germany: Verlag für Literatur und Zeitgeschehen, 1971), 65.Google Scholar

25 Vega, Luis Mercier, Guerrillas in Latin America: The Technique of the Counter-State (New York: Praeger, 1969), 129;Google ScholarGall, Norman, “The Legacy of Che Guevara,” Commentary, 44 (12 1967), 42.Google Scholar

26 Allemann, Fritz René, Macht und Ohnmacht der Guerilla (Munich: R. Piper, 1974), 359–60.Google Scholar

27 Prieto, Francisco J., “The Communist Role in Guatemala,” World Marxist Review (England), 15 (09 1972), 27.Google Scholar

28 Allemann, , Macht und Ohnmacht, 184–6;Google ScholarAguilera, , La Violencia en Guatemala, pp. 4/21 to 4/25.Google Scholar

29 Bodenheimer, Susanne, “Inside a State of Siege: Legalized Murder in Guatemala,” Ramparts, 9 (06, 1971), 52;Google ScholarGaleano, Eduardo, “With the Guerrillas in Guatemala,” in Latin America: Reform or Revolution?, Petras, James and Zeitlin, Maurice, eds. (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1968), 374.Google Scholar

30 Geyer, Georgie Anne, “Guatemala and the Guerrillas,” New Republic, 163 (4 07 1970), 18;Google ScholarAdams, Richard N., Crucifixion by Power (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970), 271–2;Google ScholarCastano, Camilo, “Avec les Guerillas du Guatemala,” Partisans, 38 (07–09 1967), 152.Google Scholar

31 Castano, , “Avec les guérillas du Guatemala,” 152.Google Scholar

32 Tzul, C., “Reaction Rampant in Guatemala,” World Marxist Review (England), 7 (09 1964), 87;Google ScholarMunson, Donn, Zacapa (Canoga, Calif.: Challenge, 1967), 160–4, 172–3, 194–5, 64–65;Google ScholarDiamond, Norman, “Why They Shoot Americans,” The Nation, 206 (5 02 1968), 167.Google Scholar

33 For a range of earlier, ever-higher estimates, see Campos, Germán Guzmán, Borda, Orlando Fals, and Luna, Eduardo Umaña, La Violencia en Colombia, 2 vols. (Bogota: Tercer Mundo, 1962–1964), vol. I, 287–93;Google ScholarGott, Richard, Rural Guerrillas in Latin America (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1973), 272;Google ScholarPetras, James, “Revolution and Guerrilla Movements in Latin America: Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, and Peru,” in Petras and Zeitlin, Latin America, 334;Google ScholarDebray, Régis, “Problems of Revolutionary Strategy in Latin America,” New Left Review, 45 (09–10 1967), 40;Google ScholarSchump, Walter, Las Guerrillas en America Latina: El Principio y el Fin (Buenos Aires: Punto Crítico, 1971), 16.Google ScholarRamsey, Russell W., “Critical Bibliography on La Violencia in Colombia,” Latin American Research Review, 8 (Spring 1973), 10,Google Scholar entry no.32, notes a stern critique of early, high estimates. Oquist, Paul, Violence, Conflict and Politics in Colombia (New York: Academic, 1980).Google Scholar

34 Comité de Solidaridad con los Presos Politicos, Libro Negro de la RepresiOn: Frente Nacional 1958–1974 (Bogotá: Editorial Gráficas Mundo Nuevo, 1974). This work is a good example of the use of political blinders in moral evaluation: No guerrilla violence against peasants is reported, except for one peasant who was ajusticiado (”judged,” the euphemism for executed). The two verbs employed to describe killings by government are consistently different from the words used for those slain by guerrillas.Google Scholar

35 See Mercier, , Guerrillas in Latin America, 236–7, for official casualty figures.Google Scholar

36 Lartéguy, , The Guerrillas, 69.Google Scholar

37 Specific allegations of violence against peasants in guerrilla zones appear in Comité de Solidaridad, Libro Negro, on 69, 70, 83, 87, 88, 90, 119, 151; Arenas, Jacobo, Diario de la Resistencia de Marquetalia (Bogotá?: Abejon Mono, 1972), 27–28, 70–72, 89.Google Scholar See also García, Jaime Velásquez, Contrainsurgencia y Guerra Revolucionaria (Bogotá: Tinta Roja, 1974), 20–23.Google Scholar

38 Guzmán, et al. , La Violencia en Colombia, vol. 2, 301–26.Google Scholar

39 Colombia: An Embattled Land (Prague: Peace and Socialism, 1970), 19–28.Google Scholar

40 For a reproduction of the pamphlet, see Mercado, , Las Guerrillas del Peru, 230–2.Google Scholar For Villanueva's use of the figure, see Guardia, Sara Beatriz, Proceso a Campesinos de la Guerrilla ‘Túpac Amaru’ (Lima: Compañía de Impresiones y Publicidad, 1972), 15;Google ScholarPetras, , “Revolution and Guerrilla Movements,” 349;Google ScholarLamberg, , Die Castristiche Guerilla, 118;Google Scholar“Peru: Entrevista a dos Guerrilleros,” Pensamiento Critico (26 July 1967), 192;Google ScholarGall, , “The Legacy of Che Guevara,” 39.Google Scholar

41 Lamberg, , Die Castristiche Guerilla, 117;Google ScholarLa Prensa (Lima), 14 August 1965. Notably, , by late September the government claimed that only fifty guerrillas had been killed in the area in the previous two months; see La Prensa, 28 September 1965.Google Scholar

42 See La Prensa, various issues, especially 7 August 1965; Guardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 20;Google ScholarMercier, , Guerrillas in Latin America, 84;Google ScholarGall, Norman, “Peru's Misfired Guerrilla Campaign,” The Reporter, 36 (26 01 1967), 38.Google Scholar

43 Mercado, , Las Guerrillas del Peru, 55–60;Google ScholarGall, , “Peru's Misfired Guerrilla Campaign,” 38;Google ScholarGuardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 21.Google Scholar

44 Guardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 41–66,Google Scholar gives the trial evidence. Similar reports of peasants who had been killed by troops appear in a private letter from Guillermo Lobatón to Luis de la Puente on 20 June 1965; see Mercado, , Las Guerrillas del Peru, 154–5,Google Scholar or Gott, , Rural Guerrillas, 421–3.Google Scholar

45 Guardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 44–45, 66–70.Google Scholar

46 Allemann, , Macht and Ohnmacht, 238.Google Scholar

47 González, Luis J. and Salazar, Gustavo Sanchez, The Great Rebel: Che Guevara in Bolivia (New York: Grove, 1969), 167, 171–2.Google Scholar

48 On Viet Cong terror, see Lewy, Guenther, America in Vietnam (New York: Oxford, 1978), 272–9,Google Scholar and Pike, Douglas, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1966),Google Scholar especially 238–51. Deaths from terror, mostly aerial, by the United States were probably about 150,000; see Sheehan, Neil, “Should We Have War Crimes Trials?,” New York Times Book Review, 28 03 1971, 1–3.Google ScholarBerger, Peter has also rejected the “hearts and minds”Google Scholar view of the Vietnam war; see his “Indochina and the American Conscience,” Commentary, 69 (02 1980), 33.Google Scholar

49 For a debate focussed on my second point, in this case concerning El Salvador's recent killings, see Berryman, Phillip, “Another View of El Salvador,” Dissent (Summer 1982), 356Google Scholar and “Gabriel Zaid Replies,” 359.Google Scholar

50 Bond, , The Rules of Riot, 89.Google Scholar

51 Among the more unlikely outcroppings were the Vendee revolt in eighteenth-century France and a twelfth-century revolt of an English Earl. See Laqueur, Walter, Guerrilla: A Historical and Critical Study (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1976), 27;Google Scholar and Beeler, John, “XIIth Century Guerrilla Campaign,” Military Review, 42 (08 1962), 44–45.Google Scholar

52 Ahmad, Eqbal, “Revolutionary Warfare and Counterinsurgency,” in National Liberation: Revolution in the Third World, Miller, Norman and Aya, Roderick, eds. (New York: The Free Press, 1971), 159–62.Google Scholar

53 Martin, Dolores Moyano, “A Memoir of the Young Guevara,” The New York Times Magazine (18 08 1968), 62.Google Scholar

54 Glaser, Daniel, Social Deviance (Chicago: Markham, 1971), 58,Google Scholar cites a study by Tittle which shows that certainty but not severity of punishment is inversely related to crime rates. See as well the discussion and accompanying references in Clinard, Marshall B., Sociology of Deviant Behavior (New York et al.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974), 346–50.Google Scholar One Eurasian officer noted of earlier Indochina that “the French destroy at random because they don't have the necessary information”; see Leites, Nathan and Wolf, Charles, Jr., Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Chicago: Markham, 1970), 109.Google Scholar

55 See Wickham-Crowley, Timothy P., “The Rise (and Sometimes Fall) of Guerrilla Governments in Latin America,” Sociological Forum, 2:3 (Summer 1987), 473–99, for an expanded treatment of this and related themes.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

56 Newby, Howard, “The Deferential Dialectic,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17:2 (04 1975), 164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

57 Turner, Ralph H. and Killian, Lewis M., Collective Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenctice-Hall, 1957), 337;Google ScholarEl Nacional (Caracas), 29 August 1965;Google ScholarDaily Journal (Caracas), 29 August 1965.Google Scholar

58 Arenas, Jaime, La Guerrilla Por Dentro (Bogotá: Tercer Mundo, 1970), 199–204.Google Scholar

59 La Violencia's atrocities are now legend both for their number and for their grisly and creative character. For an account of one hacienda raid punctuated by rape and dismemberment, see Salazar, Evelio Buitrago, Zarpazo the Bandit: Memoirs of an Undercover Agent of the Colombian Army (University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1977), 61.Google Scholar

60 Arenas, La Guerrilla Por Dentro, passim. For more information on Vásquez's importance in the ELN, see Rodríguez, Mario Menéndez, “Colombia: !Al Ataque!,” Sucesos (Mexico City), 1777 (24 06 1967), 21–22. This was the first of a series of four or five weekly articles in which the journalist reported on his visit to the ELN's foco. The reports are very informative, if uncritically laudatory, especially of Vásquez.Google Scholar

61 Ernesto, “Che” Guevara, Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968), 65;Google ScholarBonachea, and San, Martin, The Cuban Insurrection, 100–1, 190, 197, 368 (n.80);Google ScholarBarquin, , Las Luchas Guerrilleras, vol. 1, 364.Google Scholar

62 Guevara, Ernesto “Che”, The Complete Bolivian Diaries, 151–2, 170–1, 178–9 (see the entries on the analysis of the month for April, 20 June, 3–7 July, all in 1967).Google Scholar

63 Peru, Ministerio de Guerra, Las Guerrillas en el Peru y su Represión (Lima?: Ministerio De Guerra, 1966), 386.Google Scholar

64 Azcarate, Armando Artola, ¡Subversion! (Lima: Editorial Juridica, 1976), 64–65;Google ScholarGuardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 14;Google Scholar see La Prensa (Lima) 3 August 1965, for the allegations and evidence about torture.Google Scholar

65 Guardia, , Proceso a Campesinos, 38–63;Google ScholarMinisterio de, Guerra, Las Guerrillas en el Peru, 67;Google ScholarMercier, , Guerrillas in Latin America, 185;Google ScholarMercado, , Las Guerrillas del Peru, 199–201;Google ScholarLa Prensa (Lima), 25 September 1965, 14 October 1965 (the latter for the man's report on the raft incidents).Google Scholar

66 The New York Times, 24 December 1965;Google ScholarCastillo, Manuel, “Las Guerrillas en el Peru,” Estudios (Buenos Aires), 581 (04 1967), 165.Google Scholar

67 Munson, , Zacapa, 115 (Turcios' quote), 111;Google ScholarGeyer, Georgie Anne, “Guatemala and the Guerrillas,” The New Republic, 163 (4 07 1970), 18.Google Scholar For some references to executions, see Lartéguy, , The Guerrillas, 88;Google ScholarRogers, Robert and Yates, Ted, “The Undeclared War In Guatemala,” Saturday Evening Post, 239 (18 06 1966), 33;Google ScholarGilly, Adolfo, “The Guerrilla Movement in Guatemala II,” Monthly Review, 17 (06 1965), 11.Google Scholar

68 Gall, , “The Continental Revolution,” 4–5;Google ScholarAlexander, Robert J., The Communist Party of Venezuela (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1965), 94–95.Google Scholar Two elements of further interest in this case: (1) Romero was accused by some of “fingering” local enemies to the army as guerrilla collaborators, and (2) thirty families abandoned their farm plots in the area in the next few days. On “official” targets, see Valsalice, , Guerriglia e Politica, 221;Google ScholarEl Nacional (Caracas), 14 January 1965, reported that an ex-guerrilla directed the army to the graves of four peasants.Google Scholar

69 Venezuela, , Oficina Central de Información (OCI), Six Years of Aggression (Caracas: Imprenta Nacional, 1967?), 36–49;Google ScholarValsalice, , Guerriglia e Politica, 141, 216 (n.23), 221;Google ScholarDaily Journal (Caracas), 19 08 1964, 18 01 1965;Google ScholarEl Nacional (Caracas), 28 March, 1962, 18 August 1964,Google Scholar 14 September 1964. Guevara, , Los Cachorros del Pentagon, 8 (quote).Google Scholar

70 Venezuela, , OCI, Six Years of Aggression, 42–43, 48–49;Google ScholarDaily Journal (Caracas), 18 11 1965.Google Scholar

71 Venezuela, , OCI, Six Years of Aggression, 64;Google ScholarMax, Alphonse, Guerrillas in Latin America (The Hague: Interdoc, 1971), 33;Google ScholarEl Nacional (Caracas), 7 July 1964.Google Scholar

72 Valsalice, , Guerriglia e Politica, 169;Google ScholarRay, Talton F., The Politics of the Barrios in Venezuela (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 130–6;Google ScholarGall, Norman, “Teodoro Petkoff: The Crisis of the Professional Revolutionary—Part I: Years of Insurrection,” AUFSR-ECSA, vol. 16:1 (01, 1972), 15;Google ScholarDaily Journal (Caracas), 13 09 1964. More evidence on Venezuela appears in the following section.Google Scholar

73 Lamberg, , Die Castristiche Guerilla, 40;Google ScholarBonachea, and Martin, San, The Cuban Insurrection, 91.Google Scholar

74 Perera, Victor, “Guatemala: Always La Violencia,” The New York Times Magazine, 13 06 1971, 71;Google ScholarSheehan, , “Should We Have War Crimes Trials?”, 1–3;Google ScholarLeites, and Wolf, , Rebellion and Authority, 36–37.Google Scholar

75 Williams, Robin M., Jr. “Legitimate and Illegitimate Uses of Violence: A Review of Ideas and Evidence” (Paper prepared for the Behavioral Studies Research Group of the Hastings Center, May, 1979), 9–18.Google Scholar

76 Dewey, John, Human Nature and Conduct (New York: Carlton House, 1922), 18, 44–45.Google Scholar

77 Bond, , The Rules of Riot, 201, 214, for reports on the rules of war.Google Scholar

78 See the comments by Villalobos, Joaquín in Marta Harnecker's collection of interviews with Central American revolutionaries, Pueblos en Armas (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1984), 173–232;Google Scholar the report of a brief visit by Bourgois, Philippe, “What U.S. Foreign Policy Faces in Rural El Salvador: An Eyewitness Account,” Monthly Review, 34:1 (05, 1982), 14–32;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and for a medical doctor's report of a longer period in administering medical care in the Guazapa region, see Clements, Charles, Witness to War: An American Doctor in El Salvador (Torontoet al.: Bantam, 1984).Google Scholar

79 Brownmiller, Susan, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975),Google Scholar ch. 3. For more on the selectivity of American terror in Vietnam, see Lewy, , America in Vietnam, ch. 11;Google Scholar and Wolfe, Tom, “The Truest Sport: Jousting with Sam and Charlie,” Mauve Gloves and Madmen, Clutter and Vine (New York: Bantam, 1977), 24–58.Google Scholar

80 Brownmiller, , Against Our Will, 73–78, 86–113.Google Scholar

81 See Wickham-Crowley, , “Guerrilla Governments,” 481;Google Scholar and ldem, “Winners, Losers, and Also-Rans: Toward a Comparative Sociology of Latin American Guerrilla Movements,” in Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements, Eckstein, Susan, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 157.Google Scholar Some excellent detail on Barrientos's support among the Bolivian peasantry, including the 1966 electoral tallies, can be found in Bernard, Jean-Pierre, et al., Guide to the Political Parties of South America (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1973), 135–46.Google Scholar

82 The figure of 10,000 for El Salvador has been widely disseminated; for the 7,000 Colombian guerrillas, see the Latin America Weekly Report, 31 August 1984;Google Scholar for the 6,000 Guatemalan guerrillas, see Dunkerley, James, Power in the Isthmus (London: Verso, 1988), 483;Google Scholar for Sendero Luminoso of Peru, I am indebted to private conversations with Smith, Michael and also to McClintock, Cynthia, “Peru's Sendero Luminoso Rebellion: Origins and Trajectory,” in Eckstein, , Power and Popular Protest, 63.Google Scholar

83 Wickham-Crowley, , “Guerrilla Governments,” passim.Google ScholarMoore, Barrington, Jr., Injustice: The Social Bases of Obedience and Revolt (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1978), ch. 1, especially 20–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

84 Barrington Moore clearly asserts the first principle, and the Nazi diaries that he quotes from strongly suggest the second; see Injustice, 413–34.Google Scholar

85 Callanan, Colonel Edward F., “Terror in Venezuela,” Military Review, 49 (02 1969), 49–56;Google ScholarThe New York Times, 23 November 1963 and 2 December 1963;Google ScholarGall, , “Teodoro Petkoff I,” 16;Google ScholarGott, , Rural Guerrillas, 210.Google Scholar

86 For more thoughts on renegades, see Merton, Robert K., Social Theory and Social Structure, 3rd. ed. (New York: The Free Press, 1968), 209–11, 323;Google ScholarTilly, Charles, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: Wesley-Addison, 1978), 106–14, deals analytically with the way in which the acceptability of an acting group, rather than just the quality of its actions, affects the way in which repressive forces treat it.Google Scholar

87 Schur, Edwin M., Labeling Women Deviant: Gender, Stigma, and Social Control (New York: Random House, 1984), 145–56.Google Scholar

88 Brownmiller, , Against Our Will, ch. 6.Google Scholar

89 Lerner, Gerda, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford, 1986), 80–81;Google ScholarBrownmiller, , Against Our Will, ch. 3.Google Scholar

90 Stark, Rodney, Instructor's Resource Book with Demonstrations and Activities to Accompany Sociology (Second Edition) (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1987), 46–47, 51–53, 109–13;Google ScholarSanday, Peggy Reeves, “The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study,” Journal of Social Issues, 37:4 (Fall, 1981), 5–27, especially the results on 23–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

91 Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1966).Google Scholar

92 On leftist radicalism, again see Moore, , Injustice, 420–33;Google Scholar on the breakdown of the gender of the guerrillas, see George, Black, Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua (London: Zed, 1981), 323–4;Google Scholar for El Salvador and Nicaragua both, see Stanford Central America Action Network (SCAAN), eds., Revolution in Central America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1983), 383, 416–7;Google Scholar for Peru, McClintock, “Peru's Sendero Luminoso Rebellion,” original manuscript, and a private communication from Michael Smith.Google Scholar

93 Gall, , “The Continental Revolution,” 5;Google ScholarMinsterio, de Guerra, Las Guerrillas en el Peru, 60;Google ScholarLa Prensa (Lima), 23 June 1965;Google ScholarGuevara, , Reminiscences, 94.Google Scholar In the Peruvian case the army reported that the mass exodus was due to the “excitement” caused by the guerrillas.

94 Moore, , Injustice, 125;Google ScholarLupsha, Peter A., “Explanation of Political Violence: Some Psychological Theories versus Indignation,” Politics and Society, 2 (Fall 1971), 89–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

95 Wickham-Crowley, , “Guerrilla Governments.”Google Scholar

96 Gall, , “The Legacy of Che Guevara,” 32 (quotation).Google Scholar Similar thoughts are also expressed in Aaron, Lt. Colonel Harold R., “Why Batista Lost,” Army, 15 (09 1965), 71;Google ScholarGrumland, Lt. Colonel Neal G., “The Formidable Guerrilla,” Army, 12 (02 1962), 65;Google Scholar and Johnson, Chalmers, “Civilian Loyalties and Guerrilla Conflict,” World Politics, 14 (07 1962), 652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Benedict Kerkvliet has also suggested that government repression transforms mere protests into political rebellion; see The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 260–2.Google Scholar

97 Friedenberg, Daniel, “Notes on the Cuban Revolution,” New Republic, 138 (17 01 1958), 15;Google ScholarBarquín, , Las Luchas Guerrilleras, I, 319;Google ScholarDraper, Theodore, Castro's Revolution: Myths and Realities (New York: Praeger, 1962), 126.Google Scholar

98 Zago, , Aquí No Ha Pasado Nada, 173–4Google Scholar; Debray, Régis, Strategy for Revolution, Blackburn, Robin, ed. (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), 103.Google Scholar

99 El Nacional (Caracas), 31 August 1962.Google Scholar

100 Gilly, Adolfo, “The Guerrilla Movement in Guatemala I,” Monthly Review, 17 (05 1965), 24–25;Google ScholarMunson, , Zacapa, 194–5;Google ScholarSchump, , Las Guerrillas en América Latina, 55;Google ScholarShort, A. P., “Conversations with the Guatemalan Delegates in Cuba,” Monthly Review, 18 (02 1967), 37.Google Scholar

101 Guevara, , Reminiscences, 192–4;Google ScholarHector, Bejar, “Bilan d'une Guérilla au Pérou,” Partisans, 37 (04–06 1967), 98;Google ScholarBejar, , “Ne Pas Surestimer Ses Forces,” 111;Google ScholarWoodmansee, Lt. Colonel John W., Jr., “Mao's Protracted War: Theory and Practíce,” Parameters, 3:1 (1973), 40–41.Google Scholar

102 See Wickham-Crowley, , “Guerrilla Governments,” 492–3Google Scholar for more details on all but the final case; for some evidence that Sendero Luminoso's support in the Andes has fallen because they failed to protect the peasantry, see McClintock, , “Peru's Sendero Luminoso Rebellion,” 90.Google Scholar

103 For information by Amnesty International (A.I.) on a variety of cases, see their The Republic of Nicaragua (Nottingham, England: The Russell Press, 1977);Google Scholar a capsule summary is in “Guatemala: A Government Program of Political Murder,” in Guatemala in Rebellion: Unfinished History, Fried, Jonathanet al., eds. (N.Y.: Grove, 1983), 139–45;Google Scholar and a summary of their findings for the early period under Montt, Ríos, in Latin America Weekly Report (London), 15 10 1982, 11;Google Scholar for Guatemala in 1983, see as well the summary of the Americas Watch findings, in “Extermination in Guatemala,” New York Review of Books, 30:9 (2 06 1983), 13–16;Google Scholar two summaries of A.I.'s reports on Peru and El Salvador appear in, respectively, Latin America Weekly Report, 23 09 1983, 10;Google Scholar and Latin America Political Report (London; same periodical), 21 03 1980, 12.Google Scholar Independent church authorities also criticized and documented government terror as well, especially in Nicaragua and El Salvador. For more detail on government terror, mostly from left-wing sources, see, for Nicaragua: Tijerino, Doris, Inside the Nicaraguan Revolution, As Told to Margaret Randall (Vancouver: New Star, 1978), 165–75;Google ScholarLatin America Political Report, 29 June 1979, 194–6;Google ScholarNew York Times, 2 March 1977, Section 2, p. 1.Google Scholar For Guatemala, see Black, Georgeet al., Garrison Guatemala (New York: Monthly Review, 1984), 94–97;Google Scholar Concerned Scholars, Guatemala, Guatemala: Dare to Struggle, Dare to Win (San Francisco, Calif.: Solidarity, 1982), 67–72;Google Scholar and Proceso (Mexico City), no. 412 (24 09 1984), 40–43,Google Scholar for an extensive list of massacres and body counts. For El Salvador, see Navarro, Vicente, “Genocide in El Salvador,” Monthly Review, 32:11 (04 1981), 1–16;CrossRefGoogle Scholar on reports of U.S. government backing for terror, see Nairn, Allan, “Behind the Death Squads,” The Progressive, 48:5 (05 1984), 20–29,Google Scholar and Christian, Shirley, “El Salvador's Divided Military,” Atlantic Monthly, 251:6 (06 1983), 50–60Google Scholar on the military and civilian links to terror. For Peru, see McClintock, Cynthia, “Sendero Luminoso: Peru's Maoist Guerrillas,” Problems of Communism, 32:5 (09–10 1983), 30–32.Google Scholar

104 Guerrilla terror also has expanded in scope, with the insurgents using far more kidnapping, extortion, bank robbery, attacks on economic and utility targets, and interdictions of road traffic than in the past. All of these have occurred in El Salvador, at least a few in other locales. On Sendero's terror in Peru, with the estimated civilian deaths well into the thousands, see McClintock, , “Sendero Luminoso,” 19, 32;Google ScholarMario, Vargas Llosa, “Inquest in the Andes,” New York Times Magazine, 31 07 1983, 18–23et passim (which also documents government terror)Google Scholar; (Latin America) Weekly Report, 18 January 1985, 10;Google Scholar and 13 January 1984, 10–11. Widespread agreement on the Sendero's wave of terror is not shared in the literature on El Salvador, where left-wing scholars routinely deny such features. For suggestive evidence, including references to the guerrillas' self-recorded killings of thousands of civilians, see Kemble, Penn, “The Liberal Test in El Salvador,” The New Republic, 14 03 1981, 18–19;Google ScholarMcColm, R. Bruce, El Salvador: Peaceful Revolution or Armed Struggle? (New York: Freedom House, 1982), 23–24, 43;Google ScholarFalcoff, Mark and Robert, Royal, eds., Crisis and Opportunity: U.S. Policy in Central America and the Caribbean (Washington, D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1984), 199–200, 269;Google ScholarEnglebert, Michel G. (Interviewer), “Flight: Six Salvadorans Who Took Leave of the War,” The Progressive, 47:3 (03 1983), 38–43, including victims of both sidesGoogle Scholar; and (Latin America) Weekly Report, 16 03 1984, 1;Google Scholar for a more general view, see Zaid, Gabriel, “Enemy Colleagues: A Reading of the Salvadoran Tragedy,” Dissent (Winter 1982), 13–40.Google Scholar

105 This is clearest in Guatemala and El Salvador; in the former, the government under General Efraín Ríos Montt (1982–83) legitimated terror by the army (not the death squads) against civilians as justifiable attacks on “subversives”; for a typical defense (that is, by minimization and justification) of the terror by the guerrillas in El Salvador, see Berryman, “Another View of El Salvador,” and Zaid's critique, in “Gabriel Zaid Replies.”