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The Historic Change in Direction and Continuity with the Past

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2009

Tang Tsou
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The China Quarterly , Volume 98 , June 1984 , pp. 320 - 347
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Copyright © The China Quarterly 1984

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References

1. After elaborate research, the Chinese have concluded that the First Party Congress opened on 23 July 1921. Renmin ribao, 3 January 1980, p. 5. ziliaoshe, Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao, Fuyin baokan ziliao, No. 4 (1980), p. 17Google Scholar.

2. Among the more important ones are: Selected Works of Zhou Enlai (Vol. 1). Selected Works of Liu Shaoqi (Vol. 1), Collected Works of Mao Zedong on Rural Investigation, Selected Works of Zhu De, Selected Letters of Mao Zedong, Collected Works of Chen Yun, and The Memoirs of Liu Bocheng. The first two were reviewed separately in Goldstein, Steven M., “Zhou Enlai and China's Revolution: A Selected View,” The China Quarterly, No. 96 (12 1983), pp. 720–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and in Dittmer, Lowell, “The past recaptured”, CQ, No. 97 (03 1984), pp. 126–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3. Liaowang, No. 7 (1983), pp. 5–7Google Scholar.

4. Renmin ribao, 1 July 1983, p. 1.

5. Zhonggong yanjiu, Vol. 17, No. 7 (15 07 1983), pp. 5–8, 10–13Google Scholar.

6. Zhongbaoyuekan, No. 47 (12 1983), pp. 41–46Google Scholar.

7. The Seventies, August 1983, p. 53.

8. “Dang he guojia lingdao zhidu de gaige” (“The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and the state”), 18 August 1980, Selecled Works, p. 293. See also Zhonggong yanjiu, Vol. 15, No. 7 (15 07 1981), p. 126Google Scholar. The first of the other two references to Stalin alone appears in an answer to Fallaci's question about Mao. Deng declared that “we” would not treat Mao in the same way that Khrushchev treated Stalin. [“Da Yidali jizhe AoKnainuo Falaqi wen” (“Answering the questions of the Italian journalist Oriana Pallaci”), 21–23 August 1980, Selected Works, p. 306]. The other is an admission that Stalin did help China in economic reconstruction. (Ibid. p. 361) Two references to Stalin together with Marx, Engels and Lenin will be noted in our discussion of Deng's criticism of the “two whatever” policy. Infra p. 329. The third one appears in an answer to Fallaci's question about the four huge portraits in Tiananmen Square, particularly Stalin's.

9. “The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and the state,” Selected Works, pp. 280–302. This speech was distributed by the Party Centre on 11 September 1980, down to the levels of the county and regiment. It was photographically reproduced in Zhonggong yanjiu, Vol. 15, No. 17 (15 07 1981), pp. 107–139Google Scholar.

10. The Seventies, August 1980, pp. 54–56.

11. These deletions must be understood in the light of Deng's own retrospective remark that one of his earlier speeches was a bold statement although he did also give some consideration to reality. “Jiaoyu zhanxian de boluan fanzheng wenti” (“The problem of dispelling confusion and setting things right on the educational front”), 19 September 1977, Selected Works, p. 64.

12. “The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and the state,” ibid. p. 300. Peng raised these questions as early as January 1980, without giving any answer. See “Muqian xingshi he renwu” (“The current situation and tasks”), 16 January 1980, ibid. pp. 234–35.

13. There have been conflicting unofficial reports outside China on the time he was appointed to these posts.

14. “Zai zhongyang junwei quanti huiyi shang de jianghua” (“Talk at the plenary session of the Military Commission of the Central Committee”), 28 December 1977, Selected Works, p. 79. The date given in Selected Works suggests that Deng's official appointment may have been directly related to the successful reshuffling.

15. “Jiaqiang dang de lingdao, zhengdun dang de zuofeng” (“Strengthen the Party's leadership, rectify the Party's style of work”), 4 July 1975, Selected Works, p. 12.

16. “Ge fangmian dou yao zhengdun” (“Things must be straightened out in all fields”), 27 September and 4 October 1975, ibid. pp. 33–34.

17. The most easily available reproduction of these documents can be found in Xin, Qi, Sttenbang shijian tansuo (“Investigation into the ‘gang-of-four’ affair”) (Hong Kong: The Seventies, 1977), pp. 133–200Google Scholar. The first two parts of the first document are omitted. The draft of the second document of 18 articles, dated 2 September is printed but not the last draft. What purports to be the last draft of “Twenty Articles” was printed in instalments in Ming boo, 21–29 May 1977, p. 3. For the attacks launched by the writers associated with the “gang of four,” see Xuexi yu pipan (Study and Criticism), No. 4 (1976), pp. 11–35Google Scholar; No. 5, p. 6; No. 6, pp. 3, 9–19; No. 7, pp. 26–28; No. 9, pp. 7–9.

18. “Guanyu fazhan gongye de jidian yijian” (“Several opinions on the development of industry”), 18 August 1975, Selected Works, pp. 28–31.

19. “Jundui zhengdun de renwu” (“The task of consolidating the armed forces”), 14 July 1975, ibid. p. 23.

20. This “recent instruction” was included in the 1976 New Year editorial by Renmin ribao, Hongqi and Jiefangjun bao. See Hongqi, No. 1 (1976), p. 6Google Scholar, and Peking Review, 2 January 1976, p. 9.

21. Renmin ribao, 1 July 1983, p. 1. For an analysis of the historic significance of this plenum, see Tsou, Tang, “Back from the brink of revolutionary-feudal totalitarianism,” in Nee, Victor and Mozingo, David (eds.), State and Society in Contemporary China (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983)Google Scholar.

22. “Guanche tiaozheng fangzhen, baozheng anding tuanjie” (“Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee stability and unity”), 25 December 1980, Selected Works, p. 318.

23. “Jiefang sixiang, shishi qiu shi, tuanjie yizhi xiang qian kan” (“Liberate the mind, seek truth from facts, and unite as one to look ahead”), 13 December 1978, ibid. p. 133; “Jingjian jigou shi yichang geming” (“Streamlining the organizations is a revolution”), 13 January 1982, ibid. p. 352.

24. Deng's recognition of these challenges can be found in “Jianchi sixiang jiben yuanze” (“Firmly uphold the four cardinal principles”), 30 March 1979, ibid. pp. 152, 157,160 and “The current situation and tasks,” ibid. pp. 214, 216, 217.

25. “Notes [to Selected Works],” ibid. p. 376, n. 14.

26. “‘Liangge fanshi’ bu fuhe Makesizhuyi” (“The ‘Two Whatever’ policy is not in accord with Marxism”), 24 May 1977, ibid. p. 36; “Wanzhengde zhunquede lijie Mao Zedong sixiang” (“Comprehensively and accurately understand Mao Zedong Thought”), 21 July 1977, ibid. p. 39. Deng actually wrote two letters to Hua, Ye and the Party Central Committee. But the Chinese wording can be translated either as “a letter” or “letters.”

27. “The ‘Two Whatever’ policy is not in accord with Marxism,” ibid. p. 35. The translation is taken from Beijing Review, 15 April 1983, p. 14.

28. “The ‘Two Whatever’ policy is not in accord with Marxism,” Selected Works, pp. 35–36. Deng mentioned Stalin together with Marx, Engels and Lenin twice in this context.

29. Ibid. p. 36. The transaction is taken from Beijing Review. The Chinese characters, wanzheng, can perhaps be better rendered into “as a whole.”

30. “Comprehensively and accurately understand Mao Zedong Thought,” ibid. pp. 39–40; “Guanyu kexue he jiaoyu gongzuo de jidian yijian” (“Several opinions on scientific and educational work”), 8 August 1977, ibid. p. 46; “Firmly uphold the four cardinal principles,” ibid. pp. 151, 157–58; “The current situation and tasks,” ibid. p. 208; “Dui qicao ‘Guanyu jianguo yilai dang de ruogan lishi wenti de jueyi’ de yijian” (“Opinions on the drafting of ‘The resolution on certain problems concerning the history of the Party since the founding of the People's Republic of China’”), March 1980–June 1981, ibid. p. 256.

31. “Comprehensively and accurately understand Mao Zedong Thought,” Selected Works, p. 42.

32. Guangming ribao, 11 May 1978, pp. 1–2, reprinted the next day in Renmin ribao on p. 2. This article was written in August 1977 by Hu Fuming, the vice-chairman of the Department of Philosophy at the University of Nanjing and concurrently the deputy secretary of the Party branch of that department, on the basis of a conclusion which he had reached in May and June. It was submitted to Guangming ribao. After many discussions with the persons at Guangming ribao and the Party School of the Party Centre, the article was revised to make a stronger statement, by adding among other things the term “sole” in the title. Renmin ribao, 21 March 1979, p. 3. Probably, Hu Yaobang was one of those who discussed the draft with Hu Fuming.

In an article commemorating the 90th birthday of Mao, Yang Dezhi, general chief of staff of the PLA, quoted the following statement made personally by Mao in 1964 in revising an article: “Social practice is the sole criterion for testing truth,” Hongqi, No. 24 (1983), p. 25Google Scholar. Apparently, this statement by Mao came to the notice of the Chinese Party historians, theoreticians and leaders only recently.

33. “Zai quanjun zhengzhi gongzuo huiyi shang de jianghua” (“Talk at the All-Army Conference on Political Work”), ibid. pp. 109,113.

34. “Gaoju Mao Zedong sixiang de qizhi, jianchi shishi qiu shi de yuanze” (“Raise high the banner of Mao Zedong Thought, firmly uphold the principle of seeking truth from facts”), 16 September 191S, ibid. p. 123.

35. The important articles, speeches, and reports of symposia were published subsequently in Shixian shi jianyan zhenli de weiyi biaozhun wenti taolunji (A Collection of the Discussions on the Problem “Practice is the Sole Criterion for Testing Truth,” Vols. I and II), edited by the Editorial Board of Philosophical Research (Beijing: The National Academy of the Social Sciences Press, 1979)Google Scholar.

36. Subsequently, Deng himself confirmed this point. “Sixiang luxian zhengzhi luxian de shixian yao kao zuzhi luxian lai baozheng” (“The realization of the ideological line and political line depends on the organizational line as a guarantee”), 29 July 1979, Selected Works, p. 175.

37. This is one of two meanings of Peter Ludz's concept of the “refunctionalization of the ideology.” The Changing Party Elite in East Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972), p. 32, n. 53Google Scholar.

38. “Liberate the mind, seek truth from facts, and unite as one to look ahead,” Selected Works, p. 131.

39. Peking Review, 29 December 1978, pp. 14–15.

40. Ibid. p. 15.

41. Wang's article was reprinted in Ming bao, No. 2 (1980), pp. 2–15.

42. “The realization of the ideological line and political line depends on the organizational line as a guarantee,” Selected Works, p. 176.

43. “Jianchi dang de luxian, gaijin gongzuo fangfa” (“Firmly uphold the Party line, improve our methods of work”), 29 February 1980, ibid. p. 242. The term “sole” was dropped for very good reasons rooted in the philosophy of science.

44. See supra, n. 37.

45. “Firmly uphold the four cardinal principles,” Selected Works, p. 144–70. This speech together with the events since early 1979 serves to resolve any doubt entertained by outside observers as to Deng's true attitudes towards this slogan when it first appeared in the Chinese press. See Tsou, Tang, “Back from the brink,” p. 78 and n. 84 on p. 273Google Scholar.

46. “Firmly uphold the four cardinal principles,” Selected Works, p. 151.

47. Ibid. p. 157.

48. For a discussion of the middle course and “the struggle on two fronts,” see Tsou, Tang, “Political change and reform: the middle course” in Ginsburg, Norton and Lalor, Barnard (eds.), China: The 80s Era (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984), Ch. 1Google Scholar.

The middle course is defined more clearly by the rejection of the leftism of the Cultural Revolution, but the boundary on the right is more amorphous as what is a socialist path, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought is subject to various interpretations. Hence the future of the middle course may not be the middle course of the present. I am indebted to the comments of an anonymous reader from which I derive this last statement – a formulation which is more straightforward than my original sentences in the article just mentioned.

49. “Several opinions on scientific and educational work,” Selected Works, p. 45.

50. “The problem of dispelling confusion and setting things right on the educational front,” ibid. p. 63.

51. Ibid. p. 64.

52. “Several opinions on scientific and educational work,” ibid. p. 46.

53. “Zai quanguo kexue dahui kaimushi shang de jianghua” (“Talk at the opening ceremony of the All-China Conference on Science”), 18 March 1978, ibid. p. 86.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid. p. 89. For the slightly different original version of this statement, see the article by Jiahua, Pan in The Seventies, 08 1983, p. 55Google Scholar.

56. “Talk at the opening ceremony of the All-China Conference on Science,” Selected Works, p. 94.

57. Ibid. p. 95.

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid. p. 84.

60. “Several opinions on scientific and educational work,” ibid. p. 47.

61. “The problem of dispelling confusion and setting things right on the educational front,” ibid. pp. 65, 68.

62. This paragraph is based on the first three pieces of Deng's writings on education and science after July 1977. I shall leave the discussion of Deng's specific measures to others.

63. “Talk at the plenary session of the Military Commission of the Central Committee,” ibid. pp. 70–71; “Talk at the All-China Army Conference on Political Work,” ibid. pp. 117–18.

64. “Jundui yao ba jiaoyu xunlian tigao dao zhanlue diwei” (“The armed forces must raise education and training to a strategic position”), 23 August 1977, ibid. p. 56; “Talk at the plenary session of the Military Commission of the Central Committee,” ibid. p. 73.

65. “The problem of dispelling confusion and setting things right on the educational front,” ibid. p. 66.

66. “Talk at the All-Army Conference on Political Work,” ibid. pp. 119–20.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. “Talk at the plenary session of the Military Commission of the Central Com-mission,” ibid. p. 72.

70. Ibid. pp. 73; “Jingjian jundui, tigao zhandouli” (“Streamlining the armed forces and raising their combat capability”), 12 March 1980, ibid. pp. 248–51.

71. “The armed forces must raise education and training to a strategic position,” ibid. p. 56.

72. “Talk at the plenary session of the Military Commission of the Central Committee,” ibid. p. 75; “Talk at the All-Army Conference on Political Work,” ibid. pp. 115–16.

73. “The armed forces must raise education and training to a strategic position,” ibid. pp. 59–62; “Talk at the All-Army Conference on Political Work,” ibid. p. 116; “Stream-lining the armed forces and raising their combat capability,” ibid. pp. 252–54.

74. “Jundui yao zhengdun” (“ The armed forces must be consolidated ”), 25 January 1975, ibid. p. 2.

75. “Streamlining the armed forces and raising their combat capability,” ibid. p. 252.

76. Ibid. p. 253.

77. Ibid. p. 251.

78. Ibid.

79. “Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee stability and unity,” ibid. pp. 313–22.

80. Ibid. pp. 313, 322.

81. “Zai zhongguo wenxue yishu gongzuozhe disici daibiao dahui shang de zhuci (“The congratulatory speech at the Fourth Congress of Literary and Artistic Workers”), 13 October 1979, ibid. p. 185. He also declared that the Party permits criticism and counter-criticism. Ibid. p. 184.

82. Ch'iao-mu, Hu, “Observe economic laws, speed up the Four Modernizations,” Peking Review, 10 November 1978, pp. 8–9Google Scholar.

83. “The current situation and tasks,” Selected Works, p. 220.

84. “Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee stability and unity,” ibid. pp. 323–24.

85. His proposal was reflected in the issuance in early 1981 of documents Nos. 7 and 9 of the Party Centre whose contents were widely reported in Hong Kong and interpreted as placing restrictions on creative writings.

86. “Guanyu fandui cuowu sixiang qingxiang wenti” (“On the problem of opposing erroneous ideological tendencies”), 27 March 1981, Selected Works, p. 334.

87. Ibid. p. 337.

88. Zhonggong yanjiu, Vol. 17, No. 7 (15 07 1983), p. 6Google Scholar.

89. This alternative interpretation is based on the two pieces as they are printed in Selected Works, just as was the article in Zhonggong yanjiu.

90. “Guanyu sixiang luxian shang de wenti de tanhua” (“Conversation on problems relating to the ideological line”), 17 July 1981, Selected Works, p. 344. The Sixth Plenum was held in June 1981. One wishes that Deng was more precise in specifying the time at which the General Political Department raised the question of criticizing Bitter Love. But it is altogether probable that the eight-point remarks made on 27 March 1981, were his response to specific questions raised by the General Political Department.

91. Ibid. p. 346. The author, Bai Hua, was and remains a Party member.

92. Ibid. p. 348. It is to be recalled that the Sixth Plenum held in June accepted the recommendation made the previous December by the Politburo for the replacement of Hua by Deng and Hu Yaobang as respectively the chairman of the Military Commission and the chairman of the Party.

93. Tang Tsou, “Political change and reform: the middle course.”

94. An author writing under the name Gong Qianshan characterizes Deng, as “the overall coordinator or conciliator of the faction of reformers.” Zhongguo zhi chun (China's Spring), 12 1983, No. 8, p. 13Google Scholar. This journal is published by the defectors and dissenters from China. The author's articles, including this one, are partly based on facts, partly on rumours, and partly on sheer speculation.

95. According to an unverified report, the ultimate target of Liqun's, Deng attack was Hu Vaobang himself. Zheng ming, 1 02 1984, pp. 6–11Google Scholar. Zhou Yang and Ru Xin have few made self-criticisms and retained their positions. Wang Ruoshui and Hu Jiwei have famained silent and are reported to have been transferred from their posts at Renmin ribao.

96. Renmin ribao, 27 January 1984, pp. 1–5.

97. “The current situation and tasks,” Selected Works, p. 232.

98. Ibid. p. 231.

99. Ibid. p. 230.

100. “The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and the stats,” ibid. p. 287.

101. Ibid. pp. 287–83.

102. Ibid. pp. 288–89. The phrase yiyuanhua lingdao is generally translated into unified leadership. This translation does not fully express either the literal meaning or the political implications of the Chinese phrase.

103. Ibid. p. 289. For the importance of the boundaries between political power and other spheres of social life, see Walzer's, MichaelThe Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983)Google Scholar.

104. “The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and the state,” Selected Works, p. 292.

105. Ibid. p. 296.

106. Ibid. p. 293.

107. Beijing Review, 10 September 1983, p. 10.

108. “Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee work and stability,” Selected Works, p. 319; Beijing Review, 13 September 1982, p. 27.

109. “The reform of the leadership institutions of the Party and state,” Selected Works, p. 299.

110. Articles 37, 38, 67, 96, 100, 103, 104, 135.

111. “Firmly uphold the four cardinal principles,” Selected Works, pp. 159–62; “The current situation and tasks,” ibid. p. 218.

112. “Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee work and stability,” ibid. p. 319.

113. “Liberate the mind, seek truth from facts, and unite as one to look ahead,” ibid. p. 139.

114. “Opinions on the drafting of ‘The resolution on certain problems concerning the history of the Party since the founding of the People's Republic of China,’” ibid. p. 271.

115. Ibid. pp. 255, 257.

116. “Thoroughly carry out the programmatic principle of adjustment, guarantee I Ability and unity,” ibid. p. 325.

117. “Opinions on the drafting of ‘The resolution on certain problems concerning the history of the Party since the founding of the People's Republic of China,’” ibid. p. 265.

118. Ibid. p. 264. The English translation of the latter part of this quotation is taken from an article by Qi, Wang in Beijing Review, 26 12 1983, p. 20Google Scholar.

119. “Opinions on the drafting of ‘The resolution on certain problems concerning the history of the Party since the founding of the People's Republic of China,’“ Selected Works, p. 256.

120. Ibid. p. 261.

121. Ibid. p. 267.

122. Ibid. p. 262.

123. Ibid. pp. 262–63.

124. Ibid. pp. 257–58, 272. Deng referred to “10 line struggles” instead of 11. In his self-criticism made on 23 October 1966 Deng admitted that he had committed an “error in line” when he had sent work teams in June and July to the various universities and colleges and when he had failed to support the masses before Mao had come back to Beijing.

125. Ibid. p. 274.

126. Ibid. pp. 273–74; “Conversation on the problem of the ideological line,” ibid. p. 348.

127. “Zhonguo gongchandang dishierci quanguo daibiao dahui kaimuci” (“The opening speech at the 12th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party”), “ibid. p. 372.