Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T12:19:13.536Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

‘Help, not punishment’: Moving on from physical punishment of children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 April 2015

Renata Porzig-Drummond
Renata Porzig-Drummond*
Affiliation:
Macquarie University (PhD Candidate)
*
address for correspondence:P.O.Box 1069, Double Bay NSW 2028. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although the physical punishment of children is overall an ineffective disciplining strategy, has adverse long-term psychological effects, and carries the risk of physical punishment escalating into child abuse, parental physical punishment is lawful in all Australian states and territories within the bounds of lawful correction or reasonable chastisement. What is considered to be reasonable is open to considerable interpretation, which further increases the risk of physical harm to children. Physical punishment of children also contravenes the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which Australia has ratified. Although more effective disciplining strategies, such as cognitive-behavioural parenting strategies, are available and have been advocated by professional organisations, the vast majority of Australian parents condone parental physical punishment of children and are opposed to its prohibition. Predictors for this stance include perceived social norms, the belief that physically punishing children is an effective disciplining strategy and a parent's right, a perceived absence of alternative parenting strategies, and fear of prosecution if physical punishment were to be banned. Countries that have phased out the physical punishment of children have demonstrated that, to encourage a shift in parental attitudes and behaviours, public awareness about the detrimental effects of physical punishment and the effectiveness of alternative disciplining strategies needs to be raised. Additionally, parents require support through free and convenient access to evidence-based parenting programmes that promote alternative disciplining strategies; and the defence of lawful correction needs to be repealed, with the aim of setting a new standard, as well as education rather than prosecution.

Keywords

corporal punishmentphysical punishmentparenting programschild discipline
Type
Articles
Information
Children Australia , Volume 40 , Issue 1 , March 2015 , pp. 43 - 57
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ABC News. (2013, 26 July). Experts call for smacking children to be made illegal amid fears of future mental health risks. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013–07–26/calls-for-ban-on-parents-smacking-children/4844816Google Scholar
Afifi, T.O., Mota, N.P., Dasiewicz, P., MacMillan, H.L., & Sareen, J. (2012). Physical punishment and mental disorders: Results from a nationally representative US Sample. Pediatrics, 130 (2), 1–9.Google Scholar
Alexander, R., Naylor, B., & Saunders, B. (2011, 7 October). Lawful correction or child abuse: Clarifying the boundaries, sanctions and decision-making surrounding the physical discipline of children Social Science Research Network, 6 October. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2322317Google Scholar
Alizadeh, H., Applequist, K.F., & Coolidge, F.L. (2007). Parental self-confidence, parenting styles, and corporal punishment in families of ADHD children in Iran. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31 (5), 567–572.Google Scholar
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (2012, 30 July). Policy statement on physical punishment. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/aacap/Policy_Statements/2012/Policy_Statement_on_Corporal_Punishment.aspxGoogle Scholar
Anon. (2014). Smack. In Oxford Dictionaries online. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/smackGoogle Scholar
Anoula, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2005). The role of parenting styles in children's problem behaviour. Child Development, 76, 1144–1159.Google Scholar
Ateah, C.A., & Durrant, J.E. (2005). Maternal use of physical punishment in response to child misbehaviour: Implications for child abuse prevention. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 169–185.Google Scholar
Attorney-General's Department. (2012). Australia's response to the list of issues – Convention on the Rights of the Child. Barton, ACT: Attorney-General's Office. Retrieved from www.ag.gov.au/RightsAndProtections/HumanRights/TreatyBodyReporting/Pages//default.aspxGoogle Scholar
Australian Childhood Foundation. (2009). Physical abuse. Retrieved from http://www.childhood.org.au/learn/the-issue/physical-abuseGoogle Scholar
Australian Government, Australian Law Reform Commission. (2010). Family violence: A national legal response (ALRC Final Report Summary 114). Retrieved from http://www.alrc.gov.au/sites/default/files/pdfs/publications/Report%20Summary.pdfGoogle Scholar
Australian Institute of Family Studies. (2012). What is child abuse and neglect?. Retrieved from https://www3.aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/what-child-abuse-and-neglectGoogle Scholar
Australian Institute of Family Studies. (2014). Corporal punishment: Key issues. Retrieved from https://www3.aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/corporal-punishment-key-issuesGoogle Scholar
Australian Psychological Society. (2014). Parent guide to helping children manage conflict, aggression and bullying. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.org.au/publications/tip_sheets/bullying/Google Scholar
Baumrind, D. (2001, 24 August). Does causally relevant research support a blanket injunction against disciplinary spanking by parents? Paper presented at the 109th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, USA. Retrieved from http://www.drdelchiaro.com/baumrindpaper.pdfGoogle Scholar
Baumrind, D. (2008). Authoritative parenting for character and competence. In Streight, D. (Ed.), Parenting for character: Five experts, five practices (pp. 3–17). Portland, Oregon: Center for Spiritual and Ethical Education.Google Scholar
Bell, T., & Romano, E. (2012). Opinions about child corporal punishment and influencing factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27 (11), 2208–2229.Google Scholar
Boyson, R. (2002). Equal protection for children: An overview of the experience of countries that accord children full protection from physical punishment. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Retrieved from www.nspcc.net/Inform/publications/downloads/equalprotectionforchildren_wdf48095.pdfGoogle Scholar
Browne, R. (2013, 20 March). Doubts over Triple P, the parenting program of choice. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from http://www.smh.com.au/national/doubts-over triple-p-the-parenting-program-of-choice-20130319–2gdnm.htmlGoogle Scholar
Bussmann, K., Erthal, C., & Schroth, A. (2010). Effects of banning corporal punishment in Europe: A five-nation comparison. In Durrant, J.E. & Smith, A. (Eds.), Global pathways to abolishing physical punishment: Realizing children's rights (pp. 299–322). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare. (2014a). Triple P – Positive Parenting Program – Level 4 (Level 4 Triple 4). Retrieved from http://www.cebc4cw.org/program/triple-p-positive-parenting-program-level-4-level-4-triple-p/Google Scholar
California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare. (2014b). 1–2–3 Magic: Effective Discipline for Children 2–12. Retrieved from http://www.cebc4cw.org/program/1–2–3-magic-effective-discipline-for-children-2–12/Google Scholar
California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare. (2014c). The Incredible Years. Retrieved from http://www.cebc4cw.org/program/the-incredible-years/Google Scholar
Cavanagh, K., & Dobash, P. (2007). The murder of children by fathers in the context of child abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31 (7), 731–746.Google Scholar
Centre for Community Child Health. (2010). Policy Brief No. 20 2010: Physical punishment. Royal Children's Hospital. Retrieved from http://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/ccch/PB_20_Physical_Punishment.pdfGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). Parent training programs: Insight for Practitioners. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/Parent_Training_Brief-a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Child Abuse Prevention Research Australia. (2014). Protect and respect the child. Retrieved from http://www.capra.monash.org/Google Scholar
Children's Commissioner. (2008). Omnibus Survey Report. One year on: Public attitudes and New Zealand's child discipline law. Retrieved from http://www.occ.org.nz/assets/Publications/OCC-UMR-Research-141108.pdfGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (1997). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Sixteenth session. Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the convention. Concluding observations: Australia. Retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/publisher.CRC.CONOBSERVATIONS.AUS.3ae6af5b38.0.htmlGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2005). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Fortieth session. Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the convention. Concluding observations: Australia. Retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/publisher,CRC,CONCOBSERVATIONS,AUS,45377eac0,0.htmlGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2006). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Forty-second session. General comment no.8 (2006): The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment. Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/GC8_en.pdfGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2011). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: General comment no.13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence. Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/CRC.C.GC.13_en.pdfGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2012). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Sixtieth session. Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the convention. Concluding observations: Australia. Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/co/CRC_C_AUS_CO_4.pdfGoogle Scholar
Commonwealth of Australia. (2009). Protecting children is everyone's business: National framework for protecting Australia's children 2009–2020. Retrieved from https://www.coag.gov.au/sites/default/. . ./child_protection_framework.rtfGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, C. E., Bremner, R., & Boyle, M. (1995). Large group community-based parenting programs for families of pre-schoolers at risk for disruptive behavior disorders: Utilzation, cost effectiveness, and outcome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36 (7), 1141–1159.Google Scholar
Department of Family & Community Services/Nexus Management Consulting. (2011). Summary report: Evaluation of the implementation of Triple P in NSW. Retrieved from http://www.families.nsw.gov.au/assets/triplep_eval_report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Durrant, J. E. (1999). Evaluating the success of Sweden's corporal punishment ban. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25 (5), 435–448.Google Scholar
Durrant, J. E. (2007). Positive discipline. Bangkok, Thailand: Save the Children Sweden Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from: http://www.pandasa.co.za/images/PositiveDisciplineManual.pdfGoogle Scholar
Durrant, J. E., & Ensom, R. (2012). Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 184, 1373–1377.Google Scholar
Durrant, J. E., Trocmé, N., Fallon, B., Milne, C., Black, T., & Knoke, D. (2006). Punitive violence against children in Canada. CECW Information Sheet 41E. University of Toronto, Faculty of Social Work, Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved from: www.cecwcepb.ca/DocsEng/PunitiveViolence41E.pdf.Google Scholar
Enebrink, P., Högström, J., Forster, M., & Ghaderi, A. (2012). Internet-based parent management training: A randomized controlled study. Behavior Research and Therapy, 50, 240–249.Google Scholar
Eyberg, S. M. (1988). Parent–child interaction therapy: Integration of traditional and behavioral concerns. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 10, 33–46.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Spanking, corporal punishment and negative long-term outcomes: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 196–208.Google Scholar
Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S. M., & Donnelly, M. (2012). Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting programmes for early-onset conduct problems in children aged 3–12 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD008225.Google Scholar
Gagne, M. H., Tourigny, M., & Pouliot-Lapointe, J. (2007). Predictors of adult attitudes toward corporal punishment of children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22 (10), 1285–1304.Google Scholar
Gallart, S. C., & Matthey, S. (2005). The effectiveness of Group Triple P and the impact of the four telephone contacts. Behaviour Change, 22 (2), 71–80.Google Scholar
Gaven, S., & Schorer, J. (2013). From training to practice transformation: Implementing a public health parenting program. Family Matters, 93. Retrieved from http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/fm2013/fm93/fm93e.pdfGoogle Scholar
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church. (2012). The 220th General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church USA recommendations. Retrieved from http://childrenshealthcare.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/CP Presbyterianresolutions.pdfGoogle Scholar
Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Parental corporal punishment and antisocial child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E.T. (2008). Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children. Columbus, OH: Center for Effective Discipline.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73, 33–58.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T. (2013). Spanking and child development: We know enough now to stop hitting our children. Child Development Perspectives, 7 (3), 133–137.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American Families. Child Development, 83, 838–843.Google Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2008). Prohibiting all corporal punishment of children: Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from: http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/intro/faqs.htmlGoogle Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2009a). Prohibiting corporal punishment of children: A guide to legal reform and other measures. Retrieved from: http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/LegalReformHandbook.pdfGoogle Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2009b). Legal reform – online resources. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/reform/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2011). Ending corporal punishment of children: A handbook of working with and within religious communities. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/reports/FaithHandbook.pdfGoogle Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2013). Ending legalised violence against children, Global Report 2013. Following up the UN Secretary's Study on Violence Against Children. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/reports/GlobalReport2013.pdfGoogle Scholar
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children. (2014, October). Global progress towards prohibiting all corporal punishment. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/GlobalProgress.pdfGoogle Scholar
Goddard, C. R., & Saunders, B. J. (1998). Why do we condone the ‘physical punishment’ of children? Children Australia, 23 (3), 23–28.Google Scholar
Godfrey, A. (2011, 12 September). Hands raised, we’re smack addicts: Australian parents open about smacking kids. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/national/australian-parents-do-smack-theirchildren/story-e6freuzr-1226134667946?nk=1d09971edd9e8a2be464ed2e64570da0Google Scholar
Hawton, M., & Martin, K. (2011). 1–2–3 Magic & Emotion Coaching Parenting Program 2011 (Power Point and manual). Byron Bay, New South Wales, Australia: Parentshop.Google Scholar
Holzer, P., & Lamont, A. (2010). Corporal punishment: Key issues. Australian Institute of Family Studies, National Child Protection Clearinghouse (Australia). Retrieved from http://www.theactgroup.com.au/documents/CorporalPunishment.pdfGoogle Scholar
Horin, A. (2009, 5 March). Parent agencies see few positives in $5.2m outlay. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from http://www.smh.com.au/national/parent-agencies-see-few-positives-in-52m-outlay-20090304–8ol4.htmlGoogle Scholar
Johnston, M. (2012, 26 July). More parents rule out smacking. New Zealand Herald. Retrieved from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10796068Google Scholar
Jones, M., & Basser-Marks, L. A. (1996). Mediating rights: Children, parents and the state. Australian Journal of Human Rights, 11, 1–13.Google Scholar
Keene, N. (2012, 4 February). Don't ban smacking: Nation is slap happy. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/dont-ban-smacking-nation-is-slap-happy/story-e6freuy9–1226262410534Google Scholar
Koerting, J., Smith, E., Knowles, M. M., Latter, S., Elsey, H.M., McCann, D. C., . . . Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2013). Barriers to, and facilitators of, parenting programmes for childhood behaviour problems: a qualitative synthesis of studies of parents’ and professionals’ perceptions. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22 (11), 653–670.Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Palmérus, K., . . . Quinn, N. (2005). Physical discipline and children's adjustment: Cultural normativeness as a moderator. Child Development, 76, 1234–1246.Google Scholar
Larzelere, R. E., & Kuhn, B. R. (2005). Comparing child outcomes of physical punishment and alternative disciplinary tactics: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8 (1), 1–37.Google Scholar
Larzelere, R. E., Cox, R. B., & Smith, G. L. (2010). Do nonphysical punishments reduce antisocial behavior more than spanking? A comparison using the strongest previous causal evidence against spanking. BioMedCentral Pediatrics, 10. doi: 10.1186/1471 2431-10-10.Google Scholar
Lawrence, J., & Smith, A. B. (2009). Discipline in context: families’ disciplinary practices for children aged under five. Wellington, New Zealand: Families Commission. Retrieved from http://www.nzfamilies.org.nz/sites/default/files/downloads/discipline-in-context.pdfGoogle Scholar
Leach, P. (2002). You can't beat psychological input. The Psychologist, 15 (1), 9–10.Google Scholar
Lee, S. J., Altshul, I., & Gershoff, E. T. (2013). Does warmth moderate longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child aggression in early adulthood? Developmental Psychology, 49 (11), 2017–2028.Google Scholar
Linke, P. (2002). Physical punishment: What does the research say? Every Child, 8 (3), 28–29.Google Scholar
Model Criminal Code Officers Committee. (1998). Model Criminal Code Chapter 5 Non Fatal Offences Against the Person Report. Standing Committee of the Attorney General. Retrieved from http://www.lccsc.gov.au/agdbasev7wr/sclj/documents/pdf/mcloc_mcc_chapter_5_nonfatal_offences_against_the_person_report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Modig, C. (2014). Never violence: Thirty-five years on from Sweden's abolition of corporal punishment. Government Offices of Sweden and Save the Children Sweden. Retrieved from http://resourcecentre.savethechildren.se/sites/default/files/documents/never_violence_final_2014_eng.pdfGoogle Scholar
National Association for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. (2013). Alternatives to smacking children. Retrieved from http://napcan.org.au/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/smackingalternatives.pdfGoogle Scholar
Naylor, B., & Saunders, B. (2009). Whose rights? Parents, children and discipline. Alternative Law Journal, 34 (2). Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1609465#Google Scholar
Naylor, B., & Saunders, B. (2011). The legality of ‘the slap’. The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/the-legality-of-the-slap-3683Google Scholar
New South Wales Department of Justice and Attorney General. (2010). Statutory Review Section 61AA, Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) Lawful Correction. Criminal Law Review. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/la/latabdoc.nsf/0/e0c50cfea840db1fca2576d6001f1b5c/$FILE/Statutory%20Review.pdfGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Government. (2001). Crimes Amendment (Child Protection – Physical Mistreatment) Act 2001 No 89. Retrieved from http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/num_act/capma2001n89575.pdfGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Government, Families NSW. (2014). What is Triple P? Retrieved from http://www.families.nsw.gov.au/triple-p/triple-p-index.htmGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Parliamentary Library Research Service. (2000). Crimes Amendment (Child Protection – Excessive Punishment) Bill 2000. Retrieved from https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/publications.nsf/key/ResearchBf092000Google Scholar
Nielssen, O. B., Large, M. M., Westmore, B. D., & Lackersteen, S. M. (2009). Child homicide in New South Wales from 1991 to 2005. Medical Journal of Australia, 190 (1), 7–11.Google Scholar
Oates, K. (2010). Physical punishment of children: Can we continue to accept the status quo? Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 47, 505–507.Google Scholar
O’Brien, M., & Daley, D. (2011). Self-help parenting interventions for childhood behaviour disorders: A review of the evidence. Child Care, Health and Development, 37 (5), 623–637.Google Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Moffitt, T. E., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., . . . Caspi, A. (2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: From childhood origins to adult outcomes. Developmental Psychopathology, 20 (2), 673–716.Google Scholar
Österman, K., Bjorkqvist, K., & Wahlbeck, K. (2014). Twenty-eight years after the complete ban on the physical punishment of children in Finland: Trends and psychosocial concomitants. Aggressive Behavior, 40, 568– 581.Google Scholar
Phelan, T. W. (2010). 1–2–3 Magic: Effective discipline for children 2–12 presentation package. Glen Ellyn, Illinois: ParentMagicGoogle Scholar
Phelan, T. W. (2014). 1–2–3 Magic: Effective discipline for children 2–12 (5th ed.). Glen Ellyn, Illinois: ParentMagic.Google Scholar
Porzig-Drummond, R., Stevenson, R. J., & Stevenson, C. (2014). The 1–2–3 Magic parenting program and its effect on child problem behaviors and dysfunctional parenting: A randomised controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 52–64.Google Scholar
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The US Triple-P system population trial. Prevention Science, 10 (1), 1–12.Google Scholar
Reddington, J. (2002). Banning corporal punishment: Should psychologists lead the way? InPsych, 24 (5), 18– 21.Google Scholar
Royal Australasian College of Physicians, Paediatric and Child Health Division. (2013). Position statement: Physical punishment of children. Retrieved from https://www.racp.edu.au/page/news/announcement&announcementid=5771B329–9A0F7369–615E9B109A57E85CGoogle Scholar
Sanders, M. R. (1999). Triple P – Positive Parenting Program: Towards an empirically validated multilevel parenting and family support strategy for the prevention of behavior and emotional problems in children. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2 (2), 71–90.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R. (2008). Triple P – Positive Parenting Program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22 (3), 506–517.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., Dittman, C. K., Farruggia, S. P., & Keown, L. J. (2014). A comparison of online versus workbook delivery of a self-help positive parenting program. Journal of Primary Prevention, 35 (3), 125–133.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., & Kirby, J. N. (2009). Parental programs for preventing behavioral and emotional problems in children. In Bennett-Levy, J. (Eds.), Oxford guide to low intensity CBT interventions (pp. 399–406). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., & Mazzuchelli, T. G. (2013). The promotion of self-regulation through parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16 (1), 1–17.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., & Pidgeon, A. (2011). The role of parenting programs in the prevention of child maltreatment. Australian Psychologist, 46 (4), 199–209.Google Scholar
Saunders, B. J. (2013). Ending the physical punishment of children by parents in the English speaking world: The impact of language, tradition and law. International Journal of Children's Rights, 21, 278–304.Google Scholar
Saunders, B. J., & Goddard, C. (2002). The role of mass media in facilitating community education and child abuse prevention strategies. NCPC Issues No. 16. Retrieved from https://www3.aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/mass-media-and-community-education-child abuse-preventionGoogle Scholar
Saunders, B. J., & Goddard, C. (2008). Some Australian Children's perceptions of physical punishment in childhood. Children & Society, 22, 405–417.Google Scholar
Save the Children International. (2014). Advocacy. Retrieved from http://www.savethechildren.net/what-we-do/child-rights-governanceGoogle Scholar
Scott, S., Doolan, M., Beckett, S., & Harry, S. (2011). How is parenting style related to child antisocial behavior? Preliminary findings from the Helping Children Achieve Study. Department for Education Report DFE-RR185a. Retrieved from the Institute of Education, University of London, website: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/13827/1/DFER185a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Shmueli, B. (2010). Corporate punishment in the educational system versus corporal punishment by parents: A comparative view. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73, 281–320. Retrieved from http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/lcp/vol73/iss2/11Google Scholar
Smith, B. L. (2012). The case against smacking. Monitor on Psychology, 43 (4), 60–62.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (2005). Children should never, ever, be spanked no matter what the circumstances. In Loseke, D. R., Gelles, R. J. & Cavanaugh, M. M. (Eds.), Current controversies about family violence (2nd ed., pp. 137–157). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. (2008, 28 February). Corporal punishment of children and sexual behaviour problems: Results from four studies. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association Summit Conference on Violence and Abuse in Interpersonal Relationships, Bethesda, Maryland. Retrieved from http//:www.pubpages.unh.eduGoogle Scholar
Straus, M., & Paschall, M. J. (2009). Corporal punishment by mothers and development of children's cognitive abilities: A longitudinal study of two national representative age cohorts. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 18, 459–483.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. A., Hamvas, L., Rice, J., Newman, D. L., & DeJong, W. (2011). Perceived social norms, expectations, and attitudes toward corporal punishment among an urban community sample of parents. Journal of Urban Health, 88 (2), 254–269.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. A., Manganello, J. A., Lee, S. J., & Rice, J. C. (2010). Mothers’ spanking of 3 year old children and subsequent risk of children's aggressive behaviour. Pediatrics, 125 (5), 1057–1065.Google Scholar
The Age. (2013, 12 December). Tony Abbot admits to smacking his children, rules out ban. Retrieved from: http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/tony-abbott-admits-to-smackinghis-children-rules-out-ban-20131212–2z7gw.htmlGoogle Scholar
Trunk, D. (2010). Child abuse: A summary. Verhaltenstherapie, 20, 11–18.Google Scholar
Tucci, J., Mitchell, J., & Goddard, C. (2006). Crossing the line: Making the case for changing Australian laws about the physical punishment of children. Ringwood, Victoria: Australian Childhood Foundation.Google Scholar
Tucci, J., Saunders, B., & Goddard, C. (2002). Please don't hit me. Melbourne, Victoria: Australians against Child Abuse.Google Scholar
Tully, L. (2008). Research to practice: What makes parenting programs effective? An overview of recent research. Retrieved from http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docswr/_assets/main/documents/researchnotes_parenting_programs2.pdfGoogle Scholar
United Methodist Church. (2004). Resolution of the United Methodist Church. Retrieved from http://parentinginjesusfootsteps.org/resolution-article.htmlGoogle Scholar
United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/Google Scholar
United Nations. (1966). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspxGoogle Scholar
United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspxGoogle Scholar
United Nations Secretary-General. (2006). United Nations Secretary-General's Study on Violence Against Children. Corporal punishment in East Asia and Pacific. Report for East Asia & Pacific Regional Consultation. Bangkok, Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.unviolencestudy.orgGoogle Scholar
Wade, C., Macvean, M., Falkiner, J., Devine, B., & Mildon, R. (2012). Evidence review: An analysis of the evidence for parenting interventions in Australia. Retrieved from Parenting Research Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia website: http://www.parentingrc.org.au/images/stories/evidence_review_parenting_interventions/main_report_evidencereviewparentinginterventions.pdfGoogle Scholar
Webster-Stratton, C. (1984). Randomized trial of two parent-training programs for families with conduct-disordered children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52 (4), 666–678.Google Scholar
White, C. (2013, 29 August). Why doctors are telling us not to smack our children. ABC Health & Wellbeing, The Pulse. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/health/thepulse/stories/2013/08/29/3836505.htmGoogle Scholar
White Ribbon. (2014). White Ribbon policy: The issue of corporal punishment of children and men's violence against women in Australia. Retrieved from http://www.whiteribbon. org.au/uploads/media/Research_series/WR_Policy_Corporal_Punishment.pdfGoogle Scholar
Young Earth Creation Club. (2008). Corporal discipline (aka corporal punishment and spanking) is strongly supported by God in the Bible. Retrieved from http://creationists.org/corporal-discipline.htmlGoogle Scholar
Zolotor, A. J., Theodore, A. D., Chang, J. J., Berkoff, M. C., & Runyan, D. K. (2008). Speak softly – and forget the stick: Corporal punishment and child physical abuse. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35 (4), 364–369.Google Scholar